JOURNAL OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY APRIL 2002 Vol. 99 (1) BOARD OF EDITORS Editor J.C. DANIEL M.R. ALMEIDA M.K. CHANDRASHEKARAN B.F. CHHAPGAR R. GADAGKAR INDRANEIL DAS A.J.T. JOHNSINGH AJITH KUMAR T.C. NARENDRAN A.R. RAHMANI J.S. SINGH R. WHITAKER Assistant Editor GAYATRI WATTAL UGRA INSTRUCTIONS TO CONTRIBUTORS 1 . Papers which have been published or have been offered for publication elsewhere should not be submitted. 2. Papers should be submitted in duplicate, typed double space. Preferably an additional copy should be submitted on a floppy diskette (3.5") using MS Word. 3. Trinomials referring to subspecies should only be used where identification has been authentically established by comparison of specimens actually collected. 4. Photographs for reproduction must be clear, with good contrast. Prints should be at least 9 x 12 cm and on glossy glazed paper. Text-figures, line drawings and maps should be in Indian ink, preferably on tracing paper. 5. References to literature should be placed at the end of the paper, alphabetically arranged under author’s name, with the abridged titles of journals or periodicals in italics and titles of books or papers in roman type, thus: Aluri, Raju J.S. & C. Subha Reddi (1995): Ecology of the pollination in two cat-mint species. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 92(1): 63-66. Prater, S.H. (1948): The Book of Indian Animals. Bombay Natural History Society, Mumbai, pp. 35-48. 6. Each paper should be accompanied by an abstract, normally not exceeding 200 words, and 6-8 key words. Key words should include the scientific names of important species discussed. 7. 25 reprints will be supplied free of cost to authors of main articles and new descriptions. Authors of miscellaneous notes, will be sent a free copy of the Journal. 8. The editors reserve the right, other things being equal, to publish a member’s contribution earlier than a non-member’s. 9. For the standardised common and scientific names of the birds of the Indian subcontinent refer to Buceros Vol. 6, No. 1 (2001). Hornbill House, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Mumbai 400 023. Editors, Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society VOLUME 99 (1): APRIL 2002 ^S\\thso l Date of Publication: 1-4-2002 CONTENTS EDITORIAL THE HONEY BEES OF INDIA, HYMENOPTERA: APIDAE ( With one text-figure ) By Michael S. Engel STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION OF TWO BIRD COMMUNITIES IN THE SOUTHERN WESTERN GHATS ( With five text-figures ) By E.A. Jayson and D.N. Mathew 8 INDIVIDUAL VARIATION AND SEXUAL DIMORPHISM IN THAMNOECHA UNIFORMIS (BUTLER 1875), LEPIDOPTERA: SPHINGIDAE By Peter Smetacek 26 PETA JJRISTA NOBILIS SINGHE1 — FIRST RECORD IN INDIA AND A NOTE ON ITS TAXONOMY ( With one text- figure) By Anwaruddin Choudhury 30 THE INITIAL COLONISATION OF THE YAMUNA FLOOD PLAIN BY THE SIND SPARROW PASSER PYRRHONOTUS ( With two text-figures and one plate ) By Bill Harvey and Suresh C. Sharma 35 EDIBLE OYSTERS OF THE GENUS CRASSOSTREA SACCO 1897, ALONG THE RATNAGIRI COAST, MAHARASHTRA, INDIA By M.S. Sawant and A.M. Ranade 44 FRESHWATER FISHES OF SOUTHERN KERALA WITH NOTES ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF ENDEMIC AND ENDANGERED SPECIES By K. Raju Thomas, M. John George and C.R. Biju 47 CHARACTERISTICS AND SIGNIFICANCE OF SONG IN FEMALE ORIENTAL MAGPIE- ROBIN, COPSYCHUSSA V LARIS ( With one text-figure ) By Anil Kumar and Dinesh Bhatt 54 PSYCHOPHJLY AND EVOLUTIONARY CONSIDERATIONS OF CADABA FRUTICOSA L. (CAPPARACEAE) By J.S.R. Aluri and S.P. Rao 59 A DICHOTOMOUS KEY FOR FIELD IDENTIFICATION OF THE ORDERS OF INDIAN DIPLOPODA ( With ten text-figures) By Kubra Bano 64 NEW DESCRIPTIONS STUDIES ON OXYSYCHUS DELUCCHI, HYMENOPTERA: CHALCIDOIDEA: PTEROMALIDAE, FROM INDIA WITH THE DESCRIPTION OF A NEW SPECIES ( With fifteen text-figures) By P.M. Sureshan and T.C. Narendran 72 A NEW GENUS AND TWO NEW SPECIES OF ARCTIINAE, ARCTIIDAE: LEPIDOPTERA FROM INDIA (With eighteen text-figures) By Jagbir S. Kirti and Amritpal S. Kaleka 79 A NEW BARILINE CYPRINID FISH OF THE GENUS BARILIUS HAMILTON, FROM MANIPUR, INDIA ( With two text-figures) By Waikhom Vishwanath and Wahengbam Manojkumar 86 TWO NEW SPECIES OF SCHIZOMIDS FROM INDIA WITH RANGE EXTENSION FOR SCHIZOMUS TIKA DERI ( ARACHNID A : SCHIZOMIDA) ( With twenty-six text-figures ) By D.B. Bastawade 90 A NEW SPECIES OF DESMODIUM DESVAUX., FABACEAE, FROM GARHWAL HIMALAYA, UTTARANCHAL, INDIA ( With one text-figure ) By L.R. Dangwal and R.D. Gaur 96 REVIEWS 1 . SAVING WILD TIGERS Reviewed by Asad R. Rahmani 100 2. LIFE’S DEVICES: THE PHYSICAL WORLD OF ANIMALS AND PLANTS Reviewed by Gayatri Ugra 101 3. BIRDS OF PUNE Reviewed by Asad R. Rahmani 102 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES MAMMALS 1. High-tension electric poles used as night roost by troops of Hanuman langur Pres bytes entellus at Nahargarh Wildlife Sanctuary, Jaipur By Satish Kumar Sharma 103 2. Abnormal weight and length of the Indian pangolin Manis crassicaudata Gray, 1827, from Sirohi district, Rajasthan By Satish Kumar Shanna 103 3. Scavenging by stripenecked mongoose Herpestes vitticollis on a tiger kill in Periyar Tiger Reserve, Kerala By Baby Sajan and A. Veeramani 104 4. Notes on the food habits of striped hyena Hyaena hyaena Linn. 1758 in Sariska Tiger Reserve, Rajasthan By K. Sankar and Bharat Jethwa 104 5. Attitudes towards Wildlife Conservation in Ranchi district — a case study By H.S. Gupta 105 BIRDS 6. Some clarifications regarding the lesser flamingo Phoenicopterus minor and the crab plover Dromas ardeola By Lavkumar Khacher 106 7. Occurrence of Galloperdix spp., Family Phasianidae in northwestern Madhya Pradesh By Rajiv Saxena 108 8. Observations on the mating behaviour of the Indian sarus crane Grus antigone in the wild By Aeshita Mukherjee 108 9. A heronry at Traj in Kheda district, Gujarat By Abdul Jamil Urfi 1 13 10. Interaction between Siberian crane Grus leucogeranus and checkered keelback snake Xenochrophis pis ca tor in Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur By Gargi 114 1 1 . Two interesting avian records from Kutch, Gujarat State By M.K. Himmatsinhji and S.N. Varu 115 12. Occurrence of the Ceylon frogmouth Batrachostomus moniliger (Family Podargidae) in Radhanagari Wildlife Sanctuary, Maharashtra By Varad B. Giri 1 16 13. Jungle crow Corvus macrorhynchos and its ingenuity with dry roti By Raza H. Tehsin 117 14. More evidence of red-vented bulbul Pycnonotus cafer feeding on house gecko Hemidactylus flaviviridis By Samiran Jha 118 15. Brown crake Amaurornis akool Sykes feeding on the eggs of the large pied wagtail Motacilla maderaspatensis Gmelin By Kiran Purandare 119 16. Status of the purple-rumped sunbird Nectar inia zeylonica in Gujarat State By B.M. Parasharya and Raju Vyas 119 u 17. A supplementary note on the avifauna of the Thar desert (Rajasthan) By Harkirat Singh Sangha 120 REPTILES 18. Strange behaviour in the rat snake Ptyas mucosus, Family Colubridae By Priti Sawant and Anuradha Rajagopalan 126 AMPHIBIA 19. First record of Boulenger’s tree frog Chirixalus vittatus (Anura: Rhacophoridae) from Mizoram, northeast India By Kaushik Deuti and Sushil Dutta 126 FISHES 20. On the distribution of Oreonectes ( Indoreonectes ) evezardi Day and O. (I) keralensis Rita, Banarescu and Nalbant (Pisces: Balitoridae) By K. Rema Devi, T.J. Indra and S. Krishnan 127 21. Rediscovery of critically endangered air breathing catfish Clarias dayi Hora, Pisces: Claridae, at Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary, Tamil Nadu By A. Manimekalan and M. Arunachalam .... 129 22. Some ingenious methods of fishing By Venkatesh N. Hegde 131 INSECTS 23. A new record of Brachymeria lasus Walker (Hymenoptera: Chalcididae) on Euchromia polymeria Linnaeus (Lepidoptera: Syntomidae) By Vinayan P. Nair 132 24. Oviposition behaviour of Palexorista solennis Walker, Diptera: Tachinidae, a tachinid parasitoid of teak defoliator, Hyblaea puera Cramer By J. Loganathan and P.M.M. David 132 25. Further contribution on the Diptera (Insecta) fauna of Andaman and Nicobar Islands By P. Parui, B. Mitra, M. Mukherjee and R.S. Mridha 135 26. Seasonal occurrence of Melanitis leda ismene (Cramer), Satyridae: Lepidoptera, with comments on its dry and wet season forms ByV.K. Walia 137 OTHER INVERTEBRATES 27. Molluscan fauna and its distribution in the Wild Ass Sanctuary By V.C. Soni, K.P. Bhalodia, S.M. Dave and V.J. Bhuva 139 28. First record of Bosmina tripurae Korinek et al., 1999, Crustacea: Cladocera: Bosminidae, from Assam By Bikramjit Sinha 141 29. On the damage caused to the green mussel Perna viridis by Pinnotherid crab Pinnotheres casta Antony & Kuttyamma, 1971 along the Calicut coast By R.S. Lai Mohan, George Varghese and Ernesto Campos 142 30. Preliminary studies on spider diversity and their webs in selected sacred groves in Kerala By C. Sivaperuman, P.S. Easa and S. Swetharanyam 144 BOTANY 3 1 . Notes on Clematis bourdillonii Dunn (Family Ranunculaceae) By G.V.S. Murthy 148 32. Presence of Commiphora gileadense, Family Burseraceae, in Rajasthan By Satish Kumar Sharma 152 3 3 . Ventilago bombaiensis Dalz., Rhamnaceae — a new distributional record for Tamil Nadu By V.S. Manickam, C. Murugan, V. Sundaresan and G. Jeya Jothi 153 34. On the occurrence of Pogostemon travancoricus Family Labiatae and Argyreia choisyana, Family Convolvulaceae in Tamil Nadu By V.S. Manickam, V. Sundaresan, C. Murugan and G.J. Jothi 155 35. Occurrence of Habenaria longicorniculata Grah. Family Orchidaceae in Mount Abu Wildlife Sanctuary, Rajasthan By Satish Kumar Sharma 156 36. Doum palm at Bhangarh, Rajasthan? By Satish Kumar Sharma 157 37. Typhonium Jlagelliforme (Roxb. ex Ludd.) Blume, Family Araceae: an addition to the flora of Orissa By P.C. Panda 157 38. Observations on the genus Radiococcus, Family Chlorophyceae, a new record for India By Pawan K. Dadheech and Pushpa Srivastava 158 Cover Photograph: Karvi Carvia callosa by Ashok Kothari Editorial Karvi or the common conehead was first described and named Strobilanthes callosus , by the German botanist Nees in Nathaniel Wallich’s rare plants of asia published in 1 832. Karvi belongs to the group of plants called pliestosials, which flower once in several years. Bamboos are another example. John Graham, the Presidency Postmaster of Bombay, quoting local tribals in his catalogue of Bombay plants recorded that karvi flowers every ten years. Duthie (JBNHS 5: 417-8, 1890) quoting natives of the Tapti Valley says that its flowering cycle was three years, but his observations on plants of Western Ghats placed it between 8 and 9 years. Its flowering cycle, once in seven years at Khandala, during April-May, was first noted in 1928 by Charles McCann, then Asst. Curator of the BNHS. Thereafter, this record was confirmed from the same area by Rev. Fr. H. Santapau in 1 942 and again in 1 949. Bremekamp raised the species to monotypic generic status, based on the absence of bracteoles in the flowers, naming it Carvia callosa (Nees) Bremekamp, using its local common name karvi for the generic epithet. Lisboa in the Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society Bombay { 1883), and the European traveler Clement Markham in travels in peru and India (1984) have praised this beautiful flowering plant of the Western Ghats. Constable commented on its pleasant, sweet, resinous, aromatic odour scenting the air, and the scent lingering on the hands after touching the bracts, even after washing them thrice over. He published a beautiful colour plate of the flowers in Curtis’ Botanical Magazine (plate no. 7538) in 1897. Since then, it has attracted and inspired many artists and photographers at various places like Amboli, Borivli National Park, Khandala, Mahabaleshwar and Matheran in Maharashtra. Rev. Fr. Santapau described the plant as the King of the Khandala slopes. The flower is generally white on the tube and purple on the petals. However, like many other Acanthaceae, the petals sometimes vary in colour from pink or blue to pure white, depending upon the colour-gene carrier insect pollinators. Karvi is rich in honey, which is valued for its medicinal properties, and the gregarious flowering provides exceptionally high yield. Observations during the 1 960 flowering season at Mahabaleshwar showed that the concentration of the nectar in flowers, which is 20-25% around 8 a.m., increases to 37% around noon, and remains static until 3 p.m. before declining. The leaves are toxic and non-palatable for cattle and humans, causing vomiting and inflammation of the mucous membrane of the stomach. However, the plant is esteemed for its insect repellent properties and in Junagadh, it is reported to have been used to protect woollens from insect pests. The bark is used in the preparation of an external application in parotitis, and the flowers are considered vulnerary. Its straight stems are used by the local tribals for the construction of house walls, plastered together with mud and cow-dung. M.R. ALMEIDA ACKNOWLEDGEMENT We are grateful to the Ministry of Science and Technology, Govt of India, FOR ENHANCED FINANCIAL SUPPORT FOR THE PUBLICATION OF THE JOURNAL. CITATION OF IC/EC NUMBERS FOR GENETIC MATERIALS It is brought to our notice by the National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR), Pusa Campus, New Delhi 110 012, India, that authors writing papers on particular plant materials (genetic materials) should indicate IC numbers for Indigenous collections and EC numbers for Exotic collections. Authors can directly procure these single accession numbers for each genetic material from NBPGR. In the present Intellectual Property Rights regime, it is in our national interest that all the germplasm material possess a single national accession number. Authors are therefore requested to procure IC/EC numbers from NBPGR and state them on the manuscript, without which papers will not be accepted for publication. Editors JOURNAL OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY April 2002 Vol. 99 No. 1 THE HONEY BEES OF INDIA, HYMENOPTERA: APIDAE' Michael S. Engel2 ( With one text-figure) Key words: Apis , Apoidea, honey bees, key, systematics A summary is given for the honey bee species {Apis Linnaeus) indigenous to India. Four indigenous species are recognized from the region; Apis cerana, A. dorsata, A. florea and A. andrenifcrmis . All are commonly found in India except for A. andreniformis, which is only known from a few specimens collected in the northeastern boundaries of the country. A dichotomous key is presented to aid the identification of these species and notes given on how to separate them from the Most authors today agree upon at least six species: Apis mellifera Linnaeus (1758), A. cerana Fabricius (1793), A. dorsata Fabric i us (1793), A. florea Fabricius (1787), A. andreniformis Smith (1858), and A. koschevnikovi Enderlein (1906: not Buttel- Reepen [1906], see Engel [1999]). The Sulawesi bee, A. nigrocincta Smith (1861) is also deserving of specific rank, as has been demonstrated by Hadisoesilo et al. (1995) and Hadisoesilo and Otis ( 1 996, 1 998). Although this taxon was in the past not considered specifically distinct (Engel 1998) it has since been added to the list of valid honey bee species (Engel 1999). Currently, the giant Himalayan honey bee, A. laboriosa Smith (in Moore et al. 1871), is considered a subspecies of A. dorsata (e.g., Engel 1999), but continued work on this taxon may later reinstate it as a separate species. A similar argument can be made for the Bornean honey bees known as A. nuluensis Tingek et al. ( 1 996) but they are for now best classified as a subspecies of A. cerana. Most recently, Engel (1999) has listed the species in the genus, both recent and fossil, with introduced western honey bee, A. mellifera. Introduction The honey bees (genus Apis Linnaeus) are by far the most famous of all insects owing to their production of honey, pollination of crop plants, and advanced eusocial behaviour, which has attracted much attention from biologists. Unfortunately, the systematics of this small and highly visible group is not clearly understood. This is partly owing to the high levels of variation within species and to the recent divergence times between taxa. Surprisingly, few modern monographs have been produced to clarify the taxonomic confusion within this important group of bees. The last monograph for the genus was undertaken by Maa (1953); however, his extreme classification recognized 24 species and subspecies in three genera. It is sometimes difficult when utilizing his keys and classification to reconcile names with the seven species generally recognized today. ‘Accepted September, 1999 2Division of Entomology, Natural History Museum, Snow Hall, 1 460 Jayhawk Boulevard, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas 66045-7523, USA JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY 99(1), APR. 2002 3 THE HONEYBEES OF INDIA detailed taxonomic histories for all species and subspecies. He has provided revised diagnoses for the genus and its subgenera, and detailed a phylogenetic hypothesis of their relationships. Table 1 outlines the classification of honey bees as it is presently conceived. Herein I provide a key to the indigenous species presently known from India. The dichotomous key is primarily designed for the worker bees, since this is the caste most often encountered in the field. However, characters for drones and queens are also included, and these castes can be identified with the key. For detailed taxonomic histories of each species refer to Engel (1999). Key to the Indian tribes of Corbiculate Apinae 1. Jugal lobe of hind wing present (Fig. lb); metatibial spurs absent; arolia present; outer grooves of mandible absent 2 — Jugal lobe of hind wing absent; metatibial spurs present; arolia absent or reduced; outer grooves of mandible present (Bumble bees; genus Bombus Latreille) Bombini 2. Forewing with reduced distal wing venation, marginal cell frequently open at apex; claws simple; penicillum present in worker; auricle absent; sting reduced (Stingless bees; numerous genera) Meliponini — Forewing with complete distal wing venation, marginal cell long and completely bordered by veins (Fig. la); claws cleft; penicillum absent in worker; auricle present; sting well developed (Honey bees; genus Apis Linnaeus) Apini Genus Apis Linnaeus The genus can be distinguished from other corbiculate members of the Apinae by the following combination of characters (see also diagnosis presented by Engel 1999): compound eyes with long, fine hairs; metatibia lacking penicillum; metatibial spurs absent; claws cleft; arolia present; wing venation strong and complete; marginal cell long, bluntly rounded at apex, not tapering along its length; jugal lobe present; compound eyes of drones meet at top of head. Three extant subgenera are recognized (Engel 1999); the giant honey bees, subgenus me Fig. 1: Diagrammatic wing venation of Apis {Apis) cerana Fabricius a. Forewing showing the elongate marginal cell (me) typical of Apis, b. Hind wing showing distal abscissa of the Median (M) vein; arrow indicates jugal lobe. 4 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 THE HONEYBEES OF INDIA Megapis ; the dwarf honey bees, subgenus Micrapis; and the typical honey bees, subgenus Apis s. str. All three subgenera natively occur in India. Both species of the stibgenus Micrapis are recorded from India while only a single species of Apis s str. is native to the country. The subgenus Megapis is monotypic and represented by A. dorsata. The indigenous species in India all nest in the open, except for A. cerana which nests in cavities. The western honeybee, A. mellifera , has been introduced into India for agricultural purposes. This introduced species is not included in the key below. It can be separated from the native species before attempting to use the key, by the following combination of characters: distal abscissa of vein M in hind wing absent; size moderate (7-10 mm); wings hyaline; drones without metabasitarsal process. Key to the native Apis of India (Workers, queens, and drones) 1 . Distal abscissa of vein M in hind wing present; worker size variable, moderate to large, forewing length 7-15 mm (subgenera Apis and Megapis ) 2 Table 1 HIERARCHICAL CLASSIFICATION OF HONEY BEES (ENGEL, 1999) Table 1 (contd.) HIERARCHICAL CLASSIFICATION OF HONEY BEES (ENGEL, 1999) GENUS APIS LINNAEUS Subgenus Apis Linnaeus A. cerana Fabricius* A. c. cerana Fabricius* A. c. heimifeng Engel A. c. indica Fabricius* A. c.japonica Radoszkowski A. c.javana Enderlein A. c. johni Skorikov A. c. nuluensis Tingek et al. A. c. skorikovi Engel A. koschevnikovi Enderlein A. mellifera Linnaeus A. m. adami Ruttner A. m. adansonii Latreille A. m. anatoliaca Maa A. m. artemisia Engel A. m. Eschscholtz A. m. carnica Pollmann A. m. caucasia Pollmann A. m. cecropia Kiesenwetter A. m. cypria Pollmann A. m. iberiensis Engel A. m. intermissa Maa A. m.jemenitica Ruttner A. m. lamarckii Cockerell A. m. ligustica Spinola A. m. iitorea Smith A. m. macedonica Ruttner A. m. meda Skorikov A. m. mellifera Linnaeus A. m. monticola Smith A. m. remipes Gerstacker A. m. ruttneri Sheppard et al. A. m. sahariensis Baldensperger A. m. scutellata Lepeletier de Saint Fargeau A. m. siciliana Grassi A. m. sossimai Engel A. m. syriaca Skorikov A. m. taurica Alpatov A. m. unicolor Latreille A. nigrocincta Smith subgenus Cascapis Engel j A. armbrusteri Zeuner t subgenus Megapis Ashmead A. dorsata Fabricius* A. d. binghami Cockerell A. d. breviligula (Maa) A. d. dorsata Fabricius* A. d. lab or i os a Smith subgenus Micrapis Ashmead A. andreniformis Smith* A.florea Fabricius* subgenus Prior apis Engel t A. vetusta Engel | subgenus Synapis Cockerell f A. henshawi Cockerell t A. longtibia Zhang t A. miocenica Hong | A. petrefacta (Riha) f (f ) indicates fossil taxa, (*) indicates taxa natively occurring in India. Several of the subspecies presently recognised in A. mellifera should probably be synonymized (e.g. A. mellifera taurica). JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 5 THE HONEYBEES OF INDIA — Distal abscissa of vein M in hind wing absent; worker size small, forewing length 6-7 mm. (subgenus Micrapis) 3 2. Forewing hyaline; scutellum yellow-brown, rarely black; drone with tarsi unmodified; worker size moderate, forewing length 7-9 mm. (subgenus Apis s. str.) A. cerana — Forewing fuscous; scutellum black; drone with dense frond-like setae on meso- and metatarsi; worker size large, forewing length 12-15 mm (subgenus Megapis ) A. dorsata 3. Metatibia and dorsolateral margin of metabasitarsus with black setae; metasomal terga 1-2 black, infrequently with reddish- brown hints apically on tergum 1 or basally on tergum 2; drone metabasitarsal process short, less than one-half metabasitarsus length A. andreniformis — Metatibia and dorsolateral margin of metabasitarsus with white setae; metasomal terga 1-2 reddish-brown; drone metabasitarsal process long, more than two-thirds metabasitarsus length A. florea 1. Apis (Apis) cerana Fabricius, Eastern honey bee: This is the species most often kept in apiaries and used for agricultural purposes as has been done for nearly 5 millenia in India (Joshi et al. 1980), although to a lesser degree since the introduction of A. mellifera. Feral colonies typically nest in tree hollows, unlike the other three Indian species, which nest openly. Apis cerana is genetically diverse in India with a distinctive western and eastern mitochondrial DNA type (Smith and Hagen 1996). These genetic haplotypes correspond to the “plains bee” and “hills bee” morphs of Ruttner (1988) respectively. The plains bee taxonomically corresponds to the subspecies A. cerana indica Fabricius (1798) while the hills bee appears to be A. cerana cerana. Eight subspecies of A. cerana are recognized, although only two are presently understood to occur in India (Engel 1999; Table 1). 2. Apis (Megapis) dorsata Fabricius, Giant honey bee: This species is commonly referred to as the giant honey bee owing to its large body size. Workers of A. dorsata can be quite vicious when the colony is disturbed and their sting is probably the most painful of any honey bee species. Much of the wax and honey harvested in India comes from this species (Thakar and Tonapi 1961, Singh 1980). It builds nests most often high in trees usually affixed to the underside of strong limbs. Four subspecies are presently recognized in A. dorsata (Table 1), but only the nominate subspecies is found in India. 3. Apis (Micrapis) florea Fabricius, Red dwarf honey bee: These tiny bees are relatively docile and can be worked with little difficulty; however, some nest disturbances can cause the colony to abscond and rarely are A. florea colonies managed by beekeepers. As noted by Otis (1991, 1996), in northeastern India where A. florea and A. andreniformis overlap, A. andreniformis occurs at higher elevations while A. florea occurs in the lowlands. 4. Apis (Micrapis) andreniformis Smith, Black dwarf honey bee: Unlike its sister species, A. florea , which occurs throughout India, A. andreniformis is presently restricted to the northeastern regions of the country and is exceedingly uncommon. Otis (1996) gives the distribution for A. andreniformis over the entirety of its range and records the few localities from Meghalaya, Sikkim and West Bengal, where it has been captured. The species is probably more common in Bhutan and Nepal, but no collection records have yet been made. Apis andreniformis was only recently reinstated as a valid species of the genus by Wu and Kuang (1986, 1987) and further confirmed by Wongsiri et al. (1990). References Buttel-Reepen, H., von. (1906): Apistica Beitrage zur geographischen Verbreitung der Ho Systematik, Biologie, sowie zur geschichtlichen und nigbiene (Apis mellifica L.), ihrer Varietaten und der 6 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 THE HONEYBEES OF INDIA uberigen Apis Arten. Mitt. Zool. Mus. Berlin 3: 117- 201. Enderlein, G. ( 1 906): Neue Honigbienen und Beitrage zur Kenntnis der Verbreitung der Gattung Apis. Stett. Entomol. Ztg. 67: 331-344. Engel, M.S. (1998): Fossil honey bees and evolution in the genus Apis (Hymenoptera: Apidae). Apido/ogie 29: 265-281. Engel, M.S. (1999): The taxonomy of recent and fossil honey bees (Hymenoptera: Apidae, Apis). J. Hym. Res. 8: 165-196. Fabricius, J.C. (1787): Mantissa insectorum sistems eorum species nuper detectas adiectis characteribus genericus, differentiis specificis, emendationibus, observationibus, Vol. 1. Proft, Copenhagen, pp. xx+348. Fabricius, J.C. (1793): Entomologia systematica emendata et aucta. Secundum classes, ordines, genera, species adiectis synonymis, locis, observationibus, descriptionibus, Vol. 2. Proft, Copenhagen, pp. viii+519. Fabricius, J.C. (1798): Supplementum Entomologiae Systematicae. Proft, Copenhagen, pp. [2]+572. Hadisoesilo, S. & G.M. Otis (1996): Drone flight times confirm the species status of Apis nigrocincta Smith, 1861 to be a species distinct from Apis cerana F, 1793, in Sulawesi, Indonesia. Apidologie 27: 36 1 - 369. Hadisoesilo, S. & G.W. Otis (1998): Differences in drone cappings of Apis cerana and Apis nigrocincta. J.Apic. Res. 37: 11-15. Hadisoesilo, S., G.W. Otis & M. Meixner (1995): Two distinct populations of cavity nesting honey bees (Hymenoptera: Apidae) in South Sulawesi, Indonesia. J. Kans. Entomol. Soc. 68: 399-407. Joshi, M.A., V.V. Diwan & M.C. Suryanarayana (1980): Bees and honey in ancient India. Pwc. Int. Conf. Apic. Trop. Climate 2: 143-149. Linnaeus, C. (1758): Systema naturae per regna tria naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis, ed. 10, vol. 1 Reformata. Salviae, Stockholm, pp. 824. Maa, T.C. (1953): An inquiry into the systematics of the tribus Apidini or honeybees (Hym). Treubia. 21: 525- 640. Moore, F., F. Walker & F. Smith (1871): Descriptions of some new insects collected by Dr. Anderson during the expedition to Yunan. Proc. Zool. Soc. London 1871: 244-249. Otis, G.W. (1991): A review of the diversity of species within Apis. Diversity in the Genus . Westview Press, Boulder, pp. 29-49. Otis, G.W. (1996): Distributions of recently recognized species of honey bees (Hymenoptera: Apidae; Apis) in Asia. J. Kans. Entomol. Soc., snppl. 69: 3 1 1 -333. Ruttner, F. (1988): Biogeography and taxonomy of honey bees. Springer Verlag, Berlin, pp. xxii+284. Singh, Y. (1980): Bee-keeping in Uttar Pradesh — a review. Proc. Int. Conf. Apic. Trop. Climate 2: 211-226. Smith, D.R. & R.H. Hagen (1996): The biogeography of Apis cerana as revealed by mitochondrial DNA sequence data. J. Kans. Entomol. Soc., snppl. 69: 294-310. Smith, F. (1858): Catalogue of the hymenopterous insects collected at Sarawak, Borneo; Mount Ophir, Malacca; and at Singapore, by A.R. Wallace. Proc. Linn. Soc., London 2: 42-130. Smith, F. (1861): Descriptions of new species of hymenopterous insects collected by Mr. AR. Wallace at Celebes. Proc. Linn. Soc., London 5: 57-93. Thakar, C.V. & K.V. Tonapi (1961): Nesting behaviour of Indian honey bees. 1. Differentiation of worker, queen and drone cells of the comb of Apis dorsata Fabr. Bee World 42: 61-62, 71. Tingek, S., G. Koeniger & N. Koeniger (1996): Description of a new cavity nesting species of Apis {Apis nuluensis n. sp.) from Sabah, Borneo, with notes on its occurrence and reproductive biology. Senck. biol. 76: 115-119. Wongsiri, S., K. Limbipichai, P. Tangkanasing, M. Mardan, T. Rinderer, H.A. Sylvester, G. Koeniger & G. Otis ( 1 990): Evidence of reproductive isolations confirms that Apis andreniformis (Smith, 1 858) is a separate species from sympatric florea (Fabricius, 1787). Apidologie 21: 47-52. Wu, Y. & B. Kuang ( 1 986): A study of the genus Micrapis (Apidae). Zool. Res. 7: 99-102. Wu, Y. & B. Kuang (1987): Two species of small honey bee — a study of the genus Micrapis. Bee World 68: 153-155. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 1 STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION OF TWO BIRD COMMUNITIES IN THE SOUTHERN WESTERN GHATS1 E.A. Jayson2 and D.N. Mathew3 ( With 5 text-figures) Key words: Bird community, tropical forest. Western Ghats, Kerala, India The structure and composition of bird communities was studied in the Tropical Evergreen and Moist Deciduous forests of Silent Valley and Mukkali in the Western Ghats of south India from 1988 to 1993. Variable width line transects were employed to assess the bird community each month. To correlate the structure and composition of bird community to the vegetation type, parameters like girth class distribution of trees, maturity index of 'vegetation and vegetation profile diagrams were prepared. A total of 9,921 birds were recorded during the period of study, and altogether 137 taxa of birds were identified from the two vegetation types. Species richness of birds was similar in both the habitats. The yellow-browed bulbul ( Hypsipetes indicus ) was the most common and dominant species at Silent Valley (Tropical Evergreen), whereas at Mukkali (Tropical Moist Deciduous) black drongo ( Dicrurus adsimilis) was the most common and jungle babbler ( Turdoides striatus ) was the dominant species. No significant difference in bird species richness between years was found in the Tropical Evergreen forests, whereas significant difference in species richness was obtained between different years in the Tropical Moist Deciduous Forest. The study showed that a high diversity index of vegetation (IT) is an indication of increased density of birds in tropical forests. Introduction The structure and composition of bird communities are known to vary in different vegetation types (Wiens 1989). The pioneering studies of MacArthur and MacArthur (1961) established the relationship between bird diversity and vegetation structure. MacArthur et al. (1962), and MacArthur et al. (1966), supported the above hypothesis, but some studies showed negative relationship also (Wiens 1983). Studies on forest bird communities mainly examined parameters like the structure of forest bird communities (Nilson 1983), distributions (Howe et al. 1981) and community organization (Landers and MacMahon 1980). Yorke (1984) and Terborgh et al. (1990) described the community structure of tropical forest birds. Many workers have demonstrated the relationship between bird communities and forest 'Accepted February, 2001 2Division of Wildlife Biology, Kerala Forest Research Institute, Peechi 680 653, Kerala, India. 3Plot No. 1 234, West End Colony, Mogappair, Padi PO, Chennai 600 050, Tamil Nadu, India. structure (Karr 1971, Karr and Roth 1971, Beedy 1981 and Rice et al. 1984). The roles of vegetation structure, competitors and productivity were described by Cody (1981) and the relation between total crown volume and bird diversity by Verner and Larson (1989). Similarly, patchiness of shrub distribution to diversity (Roth 1976), species richness to plant taxa (Terborgh 1985), tree species richness (James and Warmer 1982) and birds in plantations and indigenous forest were described by Carlson (1986). Even though many aspects of birds were studied in the Western Ghats of south India, (Vijayan and Balakrishnan 1977, Vijayan 1978, Zacharias and Gaston 1993, Srivastava et al. 1993, Nair et al. 1997) community studies of birds are few in number. Earlier workers (Anon. 1990) also carried out many faunal studies in the Evergreen Forests of Silent Valley. While studying the bird communities in the forests of northern Kerala, Ramakrishnan (1983) examined certain aspects of birds of Silent Valley. The relationship between birds and vegetation in New Delhi was revealed by Gaston (1979). 8 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 STR UCTURE AND COMPOSITION OF BIRD COMMUNITIES Gandhi (1986) compared the bird community structure of scrub jungle and monoculture plantations. Diversity and community structure of birds were also studied by Daniels (1989), Daniels et al. (1990), Katti (1989) and Sundaramoorthy (1991). The objective of the study was to evaluate and compare the structure and species composition of bird communities at two ecologically different habitats. Three characters of vegetation were analysed to compare and find out the relationships between the vegetation and bird community. The study forms part of a major investigation (Jayson 1994), which determined many ecological aspects of two bird communities. Seasonal changes in these bird communities were reported earlier (Jayson and Mathew 2000). Diversity and species abundance and distribution were also published (Jayson and Mathew 2000a). Study Area The study area is located in Palakkad district, Kerala State, 45 km north of Mannarghat, the nearest town, in the Western Ghats of south India between 11° 3'- 11° 13' N and 76° 25’-76° 35' E. After evaluating the entire area, two study sites were selected: a Tropical Evergreen Forest, Silent Valley, and a Moist Deciduous Forest at Mukkali. The detailed description of the study areas with a map has been given earlier (Jayson and Mathew 2000). The first site is partially degraded and most of the disturbance happened in the late seventies and early eighties, in the course of felling trees and pre-construction work of an abandoned dam. The elevation of the tract varies from 500 m to 1,500 m above msl and the topography is undulating. These two study sites are separated by about 20 km, but the vegetation types differ. Anthropomorphic pressures were severe at Mukkali due to the proximity to human habitations. There was also a difference of 400 m in elevation between the two sites. There are two distinct seasons in the study area, monsoon season from end of May up to mid- November, and the dry summer season from December to April. There is no clearly marked winter. Fast southwesterly winds blow from the western side during the monsoon. Ombrothermic diagrams of Silent Valley and Mukkali are given in Figs 1 and 2. 1400 1200 1000 c 800 • H £ 600 400 200 0 J FMAMJ J ASOND Months Fig. 1: Ombrothermic diagram of Silent Valley (1988-1993) JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 9 STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION OF BIRD COMMUNITIES 600 Months Rainfall -+-Temp. Fig. 2: Ombrothermic diagram of Mukkali (1988-1993) Methods Vegetation: The vegetation structure, vegetation structure profile and the girth class distribution of trees in the study area were analysed. In addition to this, percentage composition of trees at the two areas was also measured. Vegetation structure profile: A schematic diagram, which resembles the physiognomy of the stands of forest, is shown in the form of a profile diagram. It depicts a representative forest stand pictorially, size to scale. A 5 m x 50 m strip of forest stand was demarcated, and the position of each tree in it was marked on graph paper. Girth at breast height (GBH) and total height were recorded using a range finder. Crown shapes of individual trees were drawn on graph paper in the field. Using these pictorial and quantitative data, a profile diagram with measurements to scale (Richards 1952) was constructed. Girth class distribution: Girth of trees at breast height (GBH) with more than 10 cm was measured randomly on both sides of the transect within a width of 30 m from the central line at Silent Valley and Mukkali. Altogether, 795 trees were measured at Silent Valley and 552 trees were enumerated at Mukkali. From this data, girth class distribution was plotted. Percentage composition of trees: One hundred plots of 5 m radius each in Silent Valley and 200 such plots in Mukkali were enumerated. Plots were enumerated on both sides of the transect line, the minimum distance between plots was 25 m. Among the 200 plots at Mukkali, 100 were in natural forest and the rest were in the coffee estate. All the trees above 10 cm in GBH were identified and recorded. The diversity and percentage composition of trees were worked out using the following formulae (Phillips 1 959). Total number of individuals Density (D) = Total number of quadrats studied Total number of individuals Abundance (Ab) = Number of quadrats of occurrence 10 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION OF BIRD COMMUNITIES Number of quadrats of occurrence % Frequency = x 100 (% F) Total number of quadrats studied Number of individuals of the species Relative density = x J 00 (RD) Number of individuals of all species Relative frequency (RF) Number of occurrence of the species in the quadrat x 100 Number of occurrence of all species The following formula is used to estimate maturity index value from the two study areas (Pichi-Sermolli 1948). Total % frequency of a locality Maturity index = (Ml) Total number of species present Diversity was calculated using Shannon- Wener Index (H’= - Z (pi In pi) with the program spdivers.bas developed by Ludwig and Reynolds (1988). Birds: After considering all the available methods, the Variable Width Line Transect Method described by Burnham et al. (1980) was adopted, in which the observer walks through a fixed path, counting the birds seen or heard on both sides of the path. Whenever a bird was spotted, it was identified up to species and details like the number of birds, and habitat were noted. Birds were identified using a binocular (10 x 30) and with the help of field guides and reference books (Ali 1969, Ali and Ripley 1983). Additionally, whenever a bird was sighted in the study period, it was identified and recorded. Two line transects, each 4 km in length, were selected, one at Silent Valley and another at Mukkali. The transects covered representative habitats of the area, the first transect covered Evergreen Forest, burnt areas, and the second transect covered Moist Deciduous Forest, rocky patches, and burnt Moist Deciduous Forest. Observations were started 30 minutes after sunrise in all the months, and no census was done on days with very heavy rain and fog. Two observations were carried out in each area in a month. Altogether 150 samples of line transects were collected from the study area between May 1988 and April 1993. Among these, 80 line transects were from Silent Valley and 70 were from Mukkali spread over 45 months. There was a gap of 8 months from May 1991 to December 1991 in the collection of data. To find out the common bird species of each area the Commonness Index of the two areas was computed. Commonness Index is the average frequency of sighting of a species in one sampling at a site. The relative dominance of each bird species in the two areas was determined by calculating the Dominance Index. The following formula was used for calculating Relative Dominance. Relative Dominance = ni x 100/N Where ni = number of individuals of the species. N = The total number of individuals of all the species seen during the study period. Results Vegetation Vegetation structure profile : Vegetation profile diagram of the Evergreen Forests showed trees in three canopy layers (Fig. 3). Trees having a height of more than 30 m were quite common; the trees were densely packed. One peculiarity JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 11 STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION OF BIRD COMMUNITIES Fig. 3: Vegetation profile (5 m x 50 m) of Silent Valley showing different canopy levels at Silent Valley was the presence of shola forests. The vegetation profile diagram of Mukkali showed only two distinct canopy levels (Fig. 4). Trees having a height of more than 30 m were very rare; the individual trees were very loosely packed. Girth class distribution'. Girth class distribution of trees (more than 10 cm GBH) recorded from Silent Valley and Mukkali is shown in Fig. 5. Being a wet Evergreen Forest, trees having more than 270 cm GBH were common at Silent Valley; but at Mukkali trees of large GBH were absent. Newly introduced trees in Mukkali were less than in Silent Valley (10- 30 cm class). The prospect of new introductions in Mukkali was also poor, mainly due to the illegal removal of poles for household purposes and firewood by locals. Most of the natural tree growth in the estate was maintained to provide shade to the coffee and pepper. The vegetation of this area was degraded and burnt clumps of bamboo were seen intermittently. The following trees and shrubs were recorded from Mukkali: Terminalia bellerica , Eucalyptus, Dalbergia lanceolaria, D. latifolia , Leucaena leucocepha/a, Erythrina suberosa, Grevillea robusta, Calotropis gigantea, Bambusa bambos , Ficus carica , Cassia fistula , Carica papaya , Grewia tiliaefolia , Bauhinia racemosa, Acacia concinna, Albizzia lebbeck , Tamarindus 12 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION OF BIRD COMMUNITIES 0 10 20 30 40 Fig. 4: Vegetation profile (5 m x 50 m) of Mukkali showing different canopy levels 50 m indica, Emblica officinalis , Pterocarpus marsupium, Solanum sp., Lantana camara, Antiaris toxicaria , Cycas sp. and Calophyllum inophyllum. Other tree species included Lagerstroemia flos-reginae , Litsea zeylanica , Cenchrus inhirini , Psychotria sp., Cipadessa baccifera, Xylia xylocarpa , Haldina cordifolia, Lagerstroemia microcarpa and Macaranga peltata. Common shrubs recorded from the area were Abutilon indica , Crotalaria sp., Pimpinella heyneana. Hibiscus sp., Impatiens flaccida and Heliotropium scabrum. Grasses recorded were Pennisetum, Thomeda and Cymbopogon. Percentage composition of trees: Silent Valley. Fifty-three species of trees were recorded from the plots at Silent Valley (Table 1). Macaranga peltata with 140 individuals had the greatest abundance (2.85), highest density (0.70) and frequency (24.50) among the vegetation recorded (Table 1). Its relative density and frequency was also higher than the other vegetation. Maturity index of the vegetation at Silent Valley was 2.85 and Shannon-Wener diversity index was 2.91. Mukkali : Twenty-two tree species numbering about 256 individuals were recorded from the plots (Table 2). Albizzia had the greatest density and frequency, while Terminalia chebula was the most abundant among the other vegetation recorded. Coffee Estate : Terminalia paniculata was the most dense and frequent, while Erythrina suberosa was the most abundant (Table 3). The maturity index of the natural forest was 10.00 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 13 STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION OF BIRD COMMUNITIES Table 1 ABUNDANCE OF TREE SPECIES AT SILENT VALLEY (TROPICAL EVERGREEN FOREST) Species No. of individuals D Ab % F RD RF Macaranga peltata 140 0.70 2.85 24.50 30.43 16.0 Unidentified 2 0.01 2.00 0.50 0.43 0.32 Persea macrantha 7 0.03 1.16 3.00 1.52 1.96 Cinnamomum zeylanicum 1 0.01 1.00 0.50 0.21 0.32 Schleichera oleosa 6 0.03 1.00 3.00 1.30 1.96 Diospyros sp. 1 0.01 1.00 0.50 0.21 0.32 Unidentified 7 0.03 1.40 2.50 1.52 1.63 Palaquium ellipticum 28 0.14 1.40 10.00 6.08 6.55 Cullenia sp. 5 0.02 1.66 1.50 1.08 0.98 Valeria indica 4 0.02 1.33 1.50 0.87 0.98 Melia dubia 15 0.07 1.15 6.50 3.26 4.26 Antidesma sp. 8 0.04 1.00 4.00 1.73 2.62 Syzygium cumini 4 0.02 1.00 2.00 0.87 1.31 Unidentified 15 0.07 1.25 6.00 3.26 3.93 Macaranga indica 52 0.26 1.52 17.00 11.30 11.14 Artocarpus integrifolia 3 0.01 1.00 1.50 0.65 0.98 Unidentified 1 0.01 1.00 0.50 0.21 0.32 Unidentified 1 0.05 1.00 0.50 0.21 0.32 Myristica attenuata 12 0.06 1.50 4.00 2.60 2.62 Trema orientalis 1 0.01 1.00 0.50 0.21 0.32 Lansium sp. 16 0.08 1.45 5.50 3.47 3.60 Bischofia javanica 20 0.10 1.05 9.50 4.34 6.22 Unidentified 4 0.02 1.00 2.00 0.87 1.31 Unidentified 1 0.01 1.00 0.50 0.21 1.31 Unidentified 1 0.01 1.00 0.50 0.21 0.32 Alstonia scholar is 1 0.01 1.00 0.50 0.21 0.32 Xanthophyllum flavescens 1 0.01 1.00 0.01 0.21 0.32 Symplocos sp. 1 0.01 1.00 0.50 0.21 0.32 Mangifera indica 1 0.01 1.00 0.50 0.21 0.32 Sterculia foetida 1 0.01 1.00 0.50 0.21 0.32 Trema orientalis 2 0.01 1.00 0.50 0.43 0.65 Black berry 3 0.01 1.50 1.00 0.43 0.65 Unidentified 2 0.01 1.00 1.00 0.43 0.65 Unidentified 1 0.01 1.00 0.50 0.21 0.32 Elaeocarpus tnberculatus 11 0.05 2.20 2.50 2.39 1.63 Dysoxylum malabaricum 16 0.08 1.00 8.00 3.47 5.24 Albizzia lebbeck 3 0.01 1.00 1.50 0.65 0.98 Unidentified 3 0.01 1.00 1.50 0.65 0.98 Unidentified 1 0.01 1.00 0.50 0.21 0.32 Calophyllum inophyllum 5 0.02 1.66 1.50 1.08 0.98 Holigarna jragrans 6 0.03 1.50 2.00 1.30 1.31 Polyalthia fragrans 11 0.05 1.57 3.50 2.39 2.29 Mesua ferrea 16 0.08 1.23 6.50 3.47 4.26 Unidentified 2 0.01 1.00 1.00 0.43 0.65 Nothapodytes foetida 3 0.01 1.00 1.50 0.65 0.98 Unidentified 1 0.01 1.00 0.50 0.21 0.32 Terminalia sp. 1 0.01 1.00 0.50 0.21 0.32 Phoebe mala bar ica 5 0.02 1.00 2.50 1.08 1.63 Ficus sp. 2 0.01 1.00 1.00 0.43 0.65 Unidentified 3 0.01 1.00 1.50 0.65 0.98 Unidentified 1 0.01 1.00 0.50 0.21 0.32 Garcinia gummi-gutta 1 0.01 1.00 0.50 0.21 0.32 Unidentified 1 0.01 1.00 0.50 0.21 0.32 14 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION OF BIRD COMMUNITIES Table 2 ABUNDANCE OF TREE SPECIES AT MUKKALI (TROPICAL MOIST DECIDUOUS FOREST) Species No. of individuals D Ab %F RD RF Grewia tiliaefolia 32 0.32 1.10 29 12.50 13.18 Albizzia lebbeck 49 0.49 1.08 45 19.14 20.45 Dalbergia latifolia 27 0.27 1.12 24 10.54 10.90 Bambusa bambos 11 0.11 1.00 11 4.29 5.00 Bombax ceiba 5 0.05 1.00 5 1.95 2.27 Sapindus laurifolius 1 0.01 1.00 1 0.39 0.45 Terminalia paniculata 39 0.39 1.30 30 15.23 13.63 Emblica officinalis 7 0.07 1.00 7 2.73 3.18 Xylia xylocarpa 5 0.05 1.00 5 1.95 2.27 Pterocarpus marsupium 2 0.02 1.00 2 0.78 0.90 Ficus racemosa 7 .0.07 1.00 7 2.73 3.18 Terminalia bellerica 1 0.01 1.00 1 0.39 0.45 Lagerstroemia microcarpa 6 0.06 1.20 5 2.34 2.27 Cassia fistula 2 0.02 1.00 2 0.78 0.90 Tetrameles nudiflora l 0.01 1.00 2 0.39 0.45 Terminalia chebula 16 0.16 1.45 11 6.25 5.00 Haldina cordifolia 1 0.01 1.00 1 0.39 0.45 Scleichera oleosa 3 0.03 1.00 3 1.17 1.36 Spondias sp. 2 0.02 1.00 2 0.78 0.90 Erythrina stricta 6 0.06 1.20 5 2.34 2.27 Macaranga sp. 1 0.01 1.00 1 0.39 0.45 Others 32 0.37 1.45 22 12.50 10.00 Table 3 ABUNDANCE OF TREE SPECIES AT MUKKALI (COFFEE ESTATE) Species No. of individuals D Ab %F RD RF Terminalia paniculata 49 0.49 1.25 39 15.75 15.61 Grevillea robusta 47 0.47 1.38 34 15.11 14.34 Dalbergia latifolia 31 0.31 1.29 24 9.96 10.12 Kydia calycina 1 0.01 1.00 1 0.32 0.42 Pterocarpus marsupium 2 0.02 1.00 2 0.64 0.84 Xylia xylocarpa 16 0.16 1.45 11 5.14 4.66 Terminalia bellerica 10 0.10 1.11 9 2.21 3.79 Cassia fistula 6 0.06 1.20 5 1.92 2.10 Albizzia lebbeck 25 0.25 1.31 19 8.03 8.01 Grewia tiliaefolia 24 0.24 1.33 18 7.71 7.59 Lagerstroemia sp. 15 0.15 1.00 15 4.82 6.32 Eucalyptus sp. 1 0.01 1.00 1 0.32 0.42 Erythrina stricta 37 0.37 1.85 20 11.89 8.43 Carica papaya 2 0.02 1.00 2 0.64 0.84 Ficus racemosa 4 0.04 1.00 4 1.28 1.68 Terminalia chebula 10 0.10 1.11 9 3.21 3.79 Bambusa bambos 2 0.02 1.00 2 0.64 0.84 Schleichera oleosa 1 0.01 1.00 2 0.32 0.42 Bauhinia sp. 1 0.01 1.00 1 0.32 0.42 Emblica officinalis 1 0.01 1.00 1 0.32 0.42 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 15 STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION OF BIRD COMMUNITIES Silent Valley 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 >301 Girth (cm) Mukkali 160 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 Girth (cm) Fig. 5: Girth class distribution of trees at Silent Valley and Mukkali and that of the estate was 1 1 .28. Shannon- Wener diversity index of trees at Mukkali was 2.57. Occurrence of bird species: Silent Valley. Ninety-nine taxa from 10 Orders and 3 1 Families were recorded from Silent Valley. Occurrence of birds in different months over the study period is given in Table 4. Six species were recorded in all the months, namely blossom-headed parakeet 16 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION OF BIRD COMMUNITIES Table 4 OCCURRENCE OF BIRDS AT SILENT VALLEY IN DIFFERENT MONTHS (1988-1993) SI. No Species Months J F M A M J J A S 0 N D 42 Ardeola grayii * P - P - P P - - - - - - 124 Elanus caeruleus P P P - - - - P - - - - 135 Haliastur indus * - - P - - - - - - p - - 139 Accipiter badius * - - P - - - P - - - P - 172 Ictinaetus malayensis P - - P P P - - P - P P 196 Spilornis cheela - - P - P - - P - p P - 211 Falco sp. - - - - - - - - - - P P 263 Perdicula erythrorhyncha * P P P P P P P P - - - P 275 Galloperdix spadicea * - - P - - - - P - - P - 301 Gallus sonneratii P P P P P P P - P p P P 496 Treron pompadora P - P P P - - - - - - - 503 Treron phoenicoptera* P - P - P - - - - - P P 506 Ducula aenea P - - - - - - - - - - - 510 Ducula badia * P P P P - - - P - - - - 516 Columba livia* - - P - - - - - - - - - 521 Columba elphinstonii* - P - - - - - - - - - - 537 Streptopelia chinensis - - - - - - - - - - - P 542 Chalcophaps indica* P - P P - - - - - - P P 550 Psittacula krameri P - P - P P - P P p P P 558 Psittacula cyanocephala P P P P P P P P P p P P 564 Psittacula columboides P - P P - - P P - - P P 566 Loriculus vernalis P - P - - - - P - p P P 569 Clamator coromandus - - - - - - - P - - - - 600 Centropus sinensis - - P - - - - - - - - - 664 Asio flammeus - - P - - - - - - - - - 692 Zoonayena sylvatica - P - - - - - P - - - P 712 Harpactes fasciatus - - P - - - - - - - - - 744 Merops leschenaulti P - - P - - - P - - - P 768 Ocyceros griseus P P P - - P P - P - - P 776 Buceros bicornis - P - - - P - - - - - - 785 Megalaima viridis P P P P P P - P P p P P 798 Picumnus innominatus - - - - - - - P P - - - 821 Dinopium benghalense P P P P P P P P P p P P 825 Dinopium javanense P P - P - - - - - - - - 830 Dryocopus javensis* P - - P P - - - - - - - 856 Hemicircus canente - - - P P P - - - - - - 867 Pitta brachyura P P - - - - - - - - - P 919 Hirundo tahitica P - P P - - - - - - P P 923 Hirundo daurica P P P P P P - P P p P P 949 Lanius cristatus P - - - - - - - - - - - 952 Oriolus oriolus P - - - - - - - - - - - 954 Oriolus chinensis * P - - - - - - - - - - P 958 Oriolus xanthornus P - P - - - - - - - - - 963 Dicrurus macrocercus P P P P P - - P - p P P 967 Dicrurus caerulescens* - - - - - - - - - - P P 971 Dicrurus aeneus - P - - - - - - - p P - 977 Dicrurus paradiseus P P P P P P P P P - P P 1006 Acridotheres tristis - - - - P - - - - - - - 1015 Gracula religiosa P P P P P P - - P - P P 1032 Dendrocittavagabunda “ “ “ " ~ “ P " ” JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 17 STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION OF BIRD COMMUNITIES Table 4 (contd.) OCCURRENCE OF BIRDS AT SILENT VALLEY IN DIFFERENT MONTHS (1988-1993) SI. No. Species Months J F M A M J J A S 0 N D 1 034 Dendrocitta leucogastra P P P P P P P P P p P P 1054 Corvus macrorhynchos - - P - - - - - - - - 1081 Pericrocotus jlammeus P - P P P P P P P p P P 1098 Aegithina tiphia - - - P - - - - - - - - 1 1 03 Chloropsis aurijrons P - - P - - - - - - - - 1109 Irena puella - - - P - - - - - - - 1116 Pycnonotus melanicterus - - - - - - - - - - P - 1 1 20 Pycnonotus jocosus P P P P P P P P P p - P 1128 Pycnonotus cafer - - P - - - P P - - P P 1144 lole indicus P P P P P P P P P p P P 1 1 48 Hypsipetes leucocephalus P P P P - - - - P - P P 1154 Pellorneum ruficeps - - P - - - P - - - - - 1 1 74 Pomatorhinus schisticeps P - - P P - - - - - - - 1 224 Rhopocichla atriceps * - - - - - - - P P - - - 1259 Turdoides subrufus - - - - - - - - - - - P 1265 Turdoides striatus P P P P P P P P P p P P 1267 Turdoides affinis - P - - - - - - - - - - 1 407 Muscicapa daurica * - - P - - - - - - - - - 1408 Muscicapa muttui - - - - - - P - - - - - 1435 Cyornis pallipes* - - - - - - - - - - P - 1442 Cyornis tickelliae P P P - P - - - - - - P 1 446 Eumyias albicaudata * - - - - - - - - - - - P 1461 Terps iphone paradis i P - - - - - - - - - P - 1601 Phylloscopus sp . P P - - P P - - P - P P 1661 Copsychus saularis - - - P - - - - - - - 1700 Saxicola caprata P P P P P P P P P - P P 1 728 Myiophonus horsfieldii P P P P P P P P P p - P 1733 Zoothera citrina P P - - - - - - - - P P 1752 Turdus merula P - - P - P ■ - - - - P P 1794 Parus major - - - - P - - - - - - - 1809 Parus xanthogenys - - P P P P P - - - P - 1838 Sitta frontalis - - - P P P - - - - - - 1852 Anthus novaeseelandiae* P - - - - - - - - - - - 1874 Dendronanthus indica - - - P - - - - - - - - 1876 Motacillaflava P P P - - - - - P p P P 1 8 84 Motacilla cinerea * - - - - - - - - - - P - 1892 Dicaeum agile* - - - - - - - - ■ - p - - 1 899 Dicaeum erythrorhynchos* P - P - P P - P P - P - 1 908 Nectar inia zeylonica - - - - - - - - P - - - 1 909 Nectarinia minima P P P P - P P P P p P P 1912 Nectarinia lotenia - - - - - - - - P p - - 1 93 1 Arachnothera longirostra - P P P P - - - - - - - 1933 Zosterops palpebrosus - - - P P P - P P - P - 1 966 Lonchura malabarica P - - - - - - - - - - - 1973 Lonchura kelaarti - - - - - - - - P - - - 1 974 Lonchura punctulata* - - - - - - - - - - - P 1978 Lonchura malacca P - - - - - P - - - P 20 1 3 Carpodacus erythrinus P P P - - - - - - ■- - P * = Recorded only from Silent Valley, P = Present; (-) Not recorded Serial numbers correspond to the Handbook of Ali and Ripley (1983). 18 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION OF BIRD COMMUNITIES ( Psittacula roseata), lesser golden-backed woodpecker ( Dinopium benghalense), white- bellied treepie (Dendrocitta leucogastra ), yellow- browed bulbul ( Iole indica) and Malabar whistling-thrush ( Myiophonus horsfieldii). The most common species found at Silent Valley was the yellow-browed bulbul followed by the white- cheeked barbet ( Megalaima viridis), pied bushchat {Saxicola caprata) and common hill- myna (Gracula religiosa). The Commonness and Dominance Index of 10 selected species at Silent Valley is given in Table 5. The dominant species in the community at Silent Valley were yellow- browed bulbul, black-crested bulbul ( Pycnonotus melanicterus ), common hill-myna, jungle babbler ( Turdoides striatus) and pied bushchat. Thirty species recorded only from the Silent Valley are indicated with an asterisk in Table 4. Eight endemic species restricted to the Western Ghats: Nilgiri wood-pigeon ( Columba elphinstonii), bluewinged parakeet ( Psittacula columboides ), Malabar grey hornbill ( Ocyceros griseus), Indian scimitar-babbler ( Pomatorhinus schisticeps), Nilgiri flycatcher ( Eumyias albicaudata), whitebellied blue flycatcher ( Cyornis pallipes), small sunbird ( Nectarinia minima ) and white-bellied treepie were recorded from the area. Among these, the Nilgiri wood pigeon is a globally threatened species. Number of individuals of each species recorded from the Table 5 COMMONNESS AND DOMINANCE INDEX OF SELECTED SPECIES AT SILENT VALLEY (TROPICAL EVERGREEN FOREST) No. Species Commonness Dominance Index Index 1. Hypsipetes indicus 6.29 20.33 2. Hypsipetes leucocephalus 1.32 9.27 3. Gracula religiosa 1.44 8.04 4. Saxicola caprata 1.44 4.29 5. Megalaima viridis 1.78 4.19 6. Pycnonotus jocosus 1.18 3.38 7. Myiophonus horsfieldii 0.98 1.92 8. Gallus sonneratii 0.96 2.00 9. Dendrocitta leucogastra 0.83 1.63 10. Dinopium benghalense 0.81 1.52 transect is given in Appendix 1. Mukkali : Ninety-six taxa from 10 Orders and 30 Families were recorded from Mukkali. Monthly distribution of various species is given in Table 6. Seven species, namely spotted dove Streptopelia chinensis , white-cheeked barbet ( Megalaima viridis) lesser golden-backed woodpecker, greater racket-tailed drongo ( Dicrurus paradiseus), red-whiskered bulbul, redvented bulbul ( Pycnonotus jocosus ) and jungle babbler were recorded in all the months. The most common species were the black drongo {Dicrurus macrocercus), white-cheeked barbet, jungle babbler, redvented bulbul and greater racket-tailed drongo. Jungle babbler, red- whiskered bulbul and black drongo were the most dominant species. The Dominance and Commonness Index of 10 selected species is given in Table 7. Twenty-one species recorded only from Mukkali are marked with an asterisk in Table 6. Altogether 137 taxa of birds were recorded from both the vegetation types in this study. Number of individuals, from the transect, in each species is given in Appendix I. Changes in bird species richness : Distinct changes in the species composition was recorded among the birds of the Silent Valley and Mukkali over different months. During the monsoon months, the number of species present in Silent Valley was low. But as the rain stopped, new species arrived and a maximum of fifty-five species were recorded in January (Table 8). Reduction in species richness during the monsoon season was observed throughout the study period. Similarly, a surge in species richness was recorded during summer, in all the years. A similar trend was observed in Mukkali. No significant difference in bird species richness, between years in monsoon (X2 = 4.28; P=<0.05) and summer (X2 =8.92; P=<0.05) was seen at Silent Valley. But at Mukkali, a significant difference was observed between years in monsoon (X2 = 38.97*; P=<0.001) and summer (X2 = 14.64; P=<0.001) seasons. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 19 STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION OF BIRD COMMUNITIES Table 6 OCCURRENCE OF BIRDS AT MUKKALI IN DIFFERENT MONTHS (1988-1993) S. No. Species Months J F M A M J J A S 0 N D 124 Elams caeruleus P _ _ P . P P . P p P P 139 Accipiter badius - - - P - - - - - - - - 172 Ictinaetus malayensis - - P - - - - - - p - - 196 Spilomis cheela - - - - - P - - - - - P 211 Falco sp. - - - - - - - - P - - - 301 G alius sonneratii P P P P P - - - P p P P 496 Treron pompadora - - - - P - - - - - - - 537 Streptopelia chinensis P P P P P P P P P p P P 550 Psittacula krameri P P P P P P P - P p P P 558 Psittacula cyanocephala P P P P - - - - P p P P 564 Psittacula columboides - P P P - - - - - - - - 566 Loriculus vernalis - P P P P P - - - - - - 573 Hiercoccyx varius* - - - - P - - - - - - 590 Eudynamys scolopacea* - - P - - - - - - - - - 600 Centropus sinensis - - - - P - - - - - - P 636 Glaucidium radiatum - - P P - - - - - - - P 664 Asio jlammeus - P - - - - - - - - - - 712 Harpactes fasciatus - - P - - - - - P - P - 736 Halcyon smyrnensis * - - P P - P P - - - P P 744 Merops leschenaulti - - - P P - - - - - P P 763 Upupa epops* - - P - - P - - - - - P 768 Ocyceros griseus - - - P - P P - - - - P 776 Buceros bicornis - - - - - P - - - - - - 785 Megalaima viridis P P P P P P P P P p P P 815 Picus chlorolophus* - - - - - P - - - - - - 825 Dinopium javanense - ' - P - - - - P P - - P 826 Dinopium benghalense P P P P P P P P P p P P 856 Hemicircus canente - - P P - - - P - - P P 867 Pitta brachyura - P P - - - - - - - - - 919 Hirundo tahitica P P P - P - - P - - P P 923 Hirundo daurica - - - - - P - - - - - - 933 Lanius excubitor* - - P - - - - - - - - - 940 Lanius vittatus* - - P - P P - - - - - - 946 Lanius schach * P P - - - - - - - - - - 952 Oriolus oriolus - P - - - - - - - - - - 958 Oriolus xanthornus - P P P P P - - P - P - 963 Dicrurus macrocercus P P P P P P P - P p P P 971 Dicrurus aeneus P P - P - P P P P p P - 973 Dicrurus hottentottus* - - - - P - - - - - - - 977 Dicrurus paradiseus P P P P P P P P P p P P 1006 Acridotheres tristis P P P P P - - - - - - - 1009 Acridotheres fuscus - P P - P - - - - - - - 1015 Gracula religiosa P P - - P P - - - - - - 1032 Dendrocitta vagabunda P - P P P - P P P p P - 1034 Dendrocitta leucogastra P - P - P P P - P - P - 1049 Corvus splendens * - P - - P - P - P - P - 1054 Corvus macrorhynchos P - P - - - - - - - - - 1077 Coracina melanoptera* - - P - - - - - P - - - 1081 Pericrocotus Jlammeus P “ P P P P “ P p P P 20 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION OF BIRD COMMUNITIES Table 6 (contd.) OCCURRENCE OF BIRDS AT MUKKALI IN DIFFERENT MONTHS (1988-1993) S. No. Species Months J F M A M J J A S 0 N D 1098 Aegithina tiphia P P P - - P - - - - - - 1103 Chloropsis aurifrons P - P P - P P - P - P P 1108 Chloropsis cochinchinensis* - P - - P - - - - p - - 1109 Irena puella - - - P - P - - - - - - 1116 Pycnonotus melanicterus gularis - - P P - - - P - - - - 1120 Pycnonotus jocosus P P P P P P P P P p P P 1128 Pycnonotus cafer P P P P P P P P P p P P 1144 Hypsipetes indicus P P P P - P P P P p P P 1148 Hypsipetes leucocephalus P - P - - P - - P p P P 1174 Pomatorhinus schisticeps - - - - - - - - - p - - 1259 Turdoides subrufus - P - - - - - - - p - - 1265 Turdoides striatus P P P P P P P P P p P P 1267 Turdoides affinis P - P P P P - - - p P - 1407 Muscicapa latirostris - P - - - - - - P - P - 1408 Muscicapa muttui P - - - - - - - - - - 1409 Muscicapa ruficauda* P - - - - - - - - - - - 1427 Ficedula nigrorufa * P - - - - - - - - - - - 1445 Eumyias thalassina * P - - - - - - - - - - - 1461 Terpsiphone paradisi - - P - - - - - - - - P 1538 Orthotomus sutorius - - - P P - - - - p P - 1601 Phylloscopus sp. P P - - P - - - - p P - 1661 Copsychus saularis P P P P P P P - P - P P 1700 Saxicola caprata P P P - - P - P P p P P 1726 Monticola solitarius P P - - - - - P - - - - 1728 Myiophonus horsfieldii - - P P - P P P - - P - 1733 Zoothera citrina P - - - - - - - - - - - 1794 Parus major P P - - - - - - - - - - 1809 Parus xanthogenys - P P - - - P - - - - - 1838 Sitta frontalis - - - - P P - - - p - - 1874 Dendronanthus indica P - P - - - - - - - - - 1876 Motacilla flava P P P - - - - - P p P P 1885 Motacilla alba * - - - - - - - - - p - - 1899 Dicaeum erythrorhynchos P P - - - - - - - - - P 1908 Nectarinia zeylonica - P - - P - - - P p P P 1909 Nectarinia minima P - P - - - - - - - P - 1912 Nectarinia lotenia - P - P - - - - P - - - 1931 Arachnothera longirostra - - - - - - - - - - P - 1933 Zosterops palpebrosus - P - - - P - - - - P - 1949 Petronia xanthocollis * - P - - - - - - - - - - 1973 Lonchura kelaarti - - - - - P - - - - - - 1978 Lonchura malacca P - - - - - P - P p - - * = Recorded only from Mukkali, P = Present, (-) Not recorded; Serial numbers correspond to Handbook of Ali and Ripley (1983) Discussion Vegetation: The higher rate of recruitment of new seedlings at Silent Valley was mainly due to the protection afforded to the National Park and adjacent forests, and its distance from human settlements. Fire and tree felling appeared to have thinned this tract. One hundred and one dead trees were recorded on both sides of the transect, within a width of 1 0 m at Silent Valley, whereas only 1 0 such were recorded from Mukkali. However, at Mukkali, the forests being JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 21 STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION OF BIRD COMMUNITIES Table 7 COMMONNESS AND DOMINANCE INDEX OF SELECTED SPECIES AT MUKKALI (MOIST DECIDUOUS FOREST) No. Species Commonness Index Dominance Index 1. Dicrurus macrocercus 2.08 5.94 2. Megalaima viridis 2.04 5.47 3. Turdoides striatus 1.74 19.08 4. Pycnonotus cafer 1.47 4.61 5. Dicrurus paradiseus 1.17 3.17 6. Iole indicus 0.89 3.13 7. Streptopelia chinensis 0.85 2.20 8. Dinopium benghalense 0.83 2.09 9. Copsychus saularis 0.70 1.94 10. Psittacula cyanocephala 0.68 3.42 Moist Deciduous, trees with a height of more than 30 m were less and due to selective felling in this area in earlier periods, trees of more than 270 cm GBH were few. As the quadrats assessed for percentage tree composition were on both sides of the transect line, it is quite natural that pioneer species like Macaranga peltata and M indica were abundant in the area. This tract had a history of fire during early 1980s, i.e. before the area was declared a National Park. Maturity Index showed a lower value, which is usually obtained in the stages of succession. Diversity of tree species was high, which is correlated with the bird density. At Mukkali, no major difference was seen in the occurrence of tree species in the forest areas and estate. Both areas had the same number of tree species. Birds: Composition and diversity of trees have a great influence on the occurrence of birds. During this study, birds were observed 4,500 Table 8 MONTHLY VARIATION IN THE BIRD SPECIES RICHNESS AT SILENT VALLEY AND MUKKALI (MEAN) Area Months J F M A M J J A S O N D Silent Valley 55 42 46 34 40 23 26 27 34 21 39 42 Mukkali 46 36 53 44 29 43 25 17 33 28 38 27 times, in which a total of 9,921 birds were counted. Of the 137 species identified from the two vegetation types, 21 migrant species were from Silent Valley and 1 1 were from Mukkali; others were residents. Fifty-six species were common to both the vegetation types, while 30 species were found only in the Evergreen and 21 only in the Moist Deciduous Forest. This indicates the importance of Evergreen forests in the conservation of birds. Most of the species showed only local movements. The migrants, which were recorded from Silent Valley, were the wagtails ( Motacilla sp.), common rosefinch (Carpodacus erythrinus) and red-winged crested cuckoo ( Clamator coromandus). Distinct changes in species composition were recorded among the birds of the Silent Valley and Mukkali over different months. During monsoon, the number of species present in the Silent Valley was low. Most of the doves, pigeons, parakeets and black bulbuls ( Hypsipetes madagascariensis) were not recorded in the monsoon at Silent Valley, but were seen returning to the area with the retreat of the rain. The yellow-browed bulbul is the most common and dominant species at Silent Valley. The second common species, the white-cheeked barbet comes only sixth in dominance. From the Dominance Index, it is clear that barring a few species, all are very rare. Due to the heavy mist and low activity of birds during monsoon, it was difficult to detect them, which may be one reason for the lower numbers recorded. Also, local movement of species like the black bulbul to the Evergreen Forest was observed during summer. A major difference between the two bird communities lay in the composition of the bird species. The study suggests that the high diversity index of vegetation is an indication of increased bird density in tropical forests (Table 9). More unique and endemic species were recorded from the Evergreen Forest, which showed the influence of vegetation on species 22 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION OF BIRD COMMUNITIES Table 9 COMPARISON OF BIRD COMMUNITY PARAMETERS WITH DIVERSITY INDICES OF VEGETATION Areas Vegetation indices Bird community parameters Maturity Index Diversity Index H' Species Richness Density* Diversity Index H'* Endemic Species Silent Valley 2.85 2.91 99 1,122/km2 3.30 8 Mukkali 10.00 2.57 96 780/km2 3.45 4 *Jayson and Mathew (2000a) composition of birds. 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Ph. D. Dissertation, University of Calicut. Rice, J., B.W. Anderson & R.D. Ohmart (1984): Comparison of the importance of different habitat attributes to avian community organization. J. Wildl. Mgmt. 48(3): 895-911. Richards, P.W. (1952): The Tropical Rain Forest, Cambridge University Press, New York. Pp. 450. Roth, R.R. (1976): Spatial heterogeneity and birds species diversity. Ecology 57: 113-182. Srivastava, K.K., V.J. Zacharjas, A.K. Bhardwaj & P. Mohammed Jaffer (1993): Birds of Periyar Tiger Reserve, Kerala, South India. Indian Forester 119: 816-827. Sundaramoorthy, T. (1991): Ecology of Terrestrial birds in Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur. Ph.D. Dissertation. University of Bombay. Pp. 279. Terborgh, J. (1985): Habitat selection in Amazonian birds In: Habitat selection in birds, (Ed.: Cody, M.L.). Academic Press, New York. Pp. 311-338. Terborgh, J., S.K. Robinson, T.A. Parker III, Charles A. Munn & N. Pierpont (1990): Structure and organization of an Amazonian forest bird community. Ecol. Monog. 213-238. Verner, J. & T.A. Larson (1989): Richness of breeding bird species in mixed conifer forests of the Sierra Nevada, California. Auk 106: 447-463. Vijayan, V.S. & M. Balakrishnan (1977): Impact of Hydroelectric Project on Wildlife. Report of the first phase of study, Kerala Forest Research Institute, Peechi. Pp. 111. Vijayan, V.S. (1978): Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary and its adjacent areas. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 75(3): 888-900. Wiens, J.A. (1983): Avian community ecology: an iconoclastic view. In: Perspectives in Ornithology. (Eds: Brush, A.H. & G.A. Clark). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Pp. 335-403. Wiens, J.A. (1989): The Ecology of Bird Communities. Vol. I Foundations and patterns. Cambridge University Press. Pp. 539. Yorke, C.D. (1984): Avian community structure in two modified Malaysian habitats. Biol. Conserv. 29(4): 345-362. Zacharias, V.J. & A.J. Gaston (1993): The birds of Waynad, southern India. Forktail 8: 11-23. Appendix 1 TOTAL NUMBER OF EXAMPLES SEEN IN EACH BIRD SPECIES AT SILENT VALLEY AND MUKKALI Species Abundance Species Abundance Silent Valley Mukkali Silent Valley Mukkali Hypsipetes indicus 1070 87 Hirundo domicola 180 - Hypsipetes madagascariensis 488 48 Pycnonotus jocosus 178 172 Gracula religiosa 423 25 Psittacula krameri 147 63 Turdoides striatus 240 530 Dicrurus adsimilis 128 165 Saxicola caprata 226 39 Gallus sonneratii 105 26 Nectarinia minima 222 4 Lonchura malacca 104 32 Megalaima viridis 221 152 Myiophonus horsfieldii 101 13 24 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR . 2002 STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION OF BIRD COMMUNITIES Appendix 1 (contd.) TOTAL NUMBER OF EXAMPLES SEEN IN EACH BIRD SPECIES AT SILENT VALLEY AND MUKKALI Species Abundance Species Abundance Zosterops palpebrosus Dendrocitta vagabunda Dinopium benghalense Carpodacus erythrinus Perdicula erythrorhyncha Pomatorhinus schisticeps Pericrocotus Jlammeus Pants xanthogenys Psittacula cyanocephala Treron phoenicoptera Dicrurus paradiseus Treron pompadora Cyornis tickelliae Psittacula columboides Motacilla flava Zoothera citrina Chalcophaps indica Phylloscopus sp. Ocyceros griseus Sitta frontalis Ducula badia Dicrurus aeneus Pellorneum ruficeps Pycnonotus cafer Elanus caeruleus Loriculus vernalis Arachnothera longirostra Lonchura punctulata Dicaeum erythrorhynchos Dryocopus javensis Ictinaetus malayensis H ir undo daurica Buceros bicornis Streptopelia chinensis Nectarinia lotenia Lonchura malabarica Terpsiphone paradisi Hemicircus canente Turdoides affinis Columba elphinstonii Spilornis cheela Oriolus oriolus Turdoides subrufus Motacilla cinerea Dicaeum agile Oriolus chinensis Galloperdix spadicea Parus major Merops leschenaulti Accipiter badius Silent Valley Mukkali 101 50 86 26 80 58 79 - 75 - 69 2 58 73 55 20 52 95 52 - 43 88 41 11 41 - 35 13 35 22 31 17 27 - 27 11 25 6 23 4 18 - 17 19 16 - 16 128 14 5 13 13 13 1 13 - 13 - 12 - 11 2 11 1 11 1 9 - 8 9 8 - 8 3 7 6 7 42 7 - 6 5 6 1 4 14 4 - 4 - 4 - 4 - 3 13 3 9 3 1 Copsychus saularis Chloropsis aurifrons Haliastur indus Columba livia Cyornis pallipes Nectarinia zeylonica Zoonavena sylvatica Ducula aenea Lanius sp. Acridotheres tristis Turdus merula Ardeola grayii Falco sp. Dendrocitta vagabunda Clamator coromandus Eumyias albicaudata Dinopium javanense Pycnonotus melanicterus Picumnus innominatus Rhopocichla atriceps Anthus hodgsoni Hirundo sp. Centropus sinensis Dicrurus caerulescens Picumnus innominatus Corvus macrorhynchos Aegithina tiphia Irena puella Muscicapa latirostris Asio flammeus Harpactes fasciatus Muscicapa muttui Streptopelia chinensis Eudynamys scolopacea Halcyon smyrnensis Upupa epops Picus chlorolophus Lanius vittatus Dicntrus hottentottus Acridotheres fuscus Corvus splendens Chloropsis cochinchinensis Ficedula nigrorufa Eumyias thalassina Dendronanthus indica Orthotomus sutorius Monticola solitarius Petronia xanthocollis Silent Valley Mukkali 3 3 55 2 2 2 2 41 2 2 7 2 5 2 53 2 12 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 7 1 1 1 1 2 66 1 6 1 6 1 3 1 1 1 1 2 1 2 61 3 7 2 10 9 1 7 47 12 1 1 5 5 18 1 - = Not recorded JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 25 INDIVIDUAL VARIATION AND SEXUAL DIMORPHISM IN THAMNOECHA UNIFORMIS (BUTLER 1875), LEPIDOPTERA: SPHINGIDAE1 Peter Smetacek2 Key words: Lepidoptera, Sphingidae, hawkmoths, Thamnoecha uniformis Existing information about Thamnoecha uniformis (Butler 1875) is examined and the range of individual variation and sexual dimorphism in the species discussed. Introduction The hawkmoth Thamnoecha uniformis (Butler 1875) is a Himalayan endemic. The genus is monobasic and little is known about the species. Since the original description by Butler in 1875, only males of the species were known until Dierl (1970) described a single female from Narkanda (Himachal Pradesh). Although Dierl (op. cit.) observed some differences between the sexes, he did not appear to have more than a single pair to hand on which he based his observations. The present study developed out of the need to place the sexes correctly without resorting to genitalic examination, a task that has caused some confusion in the past. The confusion was caused by the relatively great individual variation in such a sparingly marked species. This moth has been recorded from Sabathu near Shimla, which is the type locality, and Narkanda in Himachal Pradesh; Katarmal and Bhimtal in Kumaon and Nagarjong and Godaveri in Nepal. It ascends to 2,700 m (Narkanda) and has been recorded from as low as 1 ,280 m (Katarmal). It will probably be found even lower in suitable localities, i.e. chir pine ( Pinus roxburghii Sarg.) forests. The larval food plant of Thamnoecha uniformis is thought to be chir pine by a process of elimination. Dierl (op. cit.) found a larva with the characteristic form and stripe of a conifer- feeding hawkmoth close to the Sphinx L. genus on chir pine in Nepal. 'Accepted March, 2000 2Jones Estate, Bhimtal, Nainital, Uttaranchal 263 136, India. This larva was subsequently parasitised and no moth developed out of it. Since no Indian hawkmoth was known to feed on conifers and uniformis was, at the time, the only known representative of this group in the area, and lastly, a male uniformis was found by Dierl (op. cit.) in the daytime settled on a chir pine trunk in Nagarjong, it was assumed that the larva was that of uniformis. This has, however, not been confirmed by actual breeding experiments. Although there is little reason to doubt that chir pine is the larval food plant of uniformis , it is pertinent that Sphinx ligustri L. has been recently reported from Kumaon (Smetacek 1994). While ligustri is not known to feed on conifers, the point is that uniformis is not the only representative of the group in the western Himalaya. In the present study, T. uniformis has been recorded in every month from March through August. It is always extremely scarce, no more than one individual appearing at a time. The southwest monsoon, which dictates the flying period of most hawkmoths in this area, does not perceptibly affect the emergence pattern of uniformis. Nor has this moth been found to be affected by climatic anomalies such as drought or unusually warm winters. It has always been very scarce, even though its presumed larval food plant, chir pine, covers vast tracts in Kumaon. It may be added that the assessment of its scarcity is based on its attendance at artificial light, rather than actual examination of chir pine forests at appropriate times. The only factor which seems to affect populations of this moth, besides larval 26 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 INDIVIDUAL VARIATION AND SEXUAL DIMORPHISM IN TH AMNOECHA UNIFORMIS parasites, is forest fire, which is an almost regular phenomenon in chir pine forests. None were recorded after major fires. However, the same can be said for all other hawkmoths and insects that happen to live in or near chir pine forests. Both sexes are attracted to mercury vapour lamps of 125-160 W. They are active at dusk and during the early hours of darkness, almost never appearing after 2030 hrs in summer. Their activity at dawn has not been assessed. Unlike most hawkmoths that are active and nervous for some time after being attracted, both sexes of uniformis settle directly upon arrival and rarely change position. Usually, they select a dark surface to settle upon, but will do so on a white- washed pillar if no other convenient perch is available. They rarely settle under the glare of the lamp, preferring a shady comer. At rest, they hold their wings draped laterally over the abdomen, the short abdomen and blunt wings giving them the appearance of Notodontids rather than hawkmoths. They closely resemble the European Sphiwc pinastri L., especially at rest. Although pinastri is known to visit flowers at dusk, uniformis has never been seen visiting flowers. The following is a description of the sexes: Thamnoecha uniformis (Butler) 1875. Hyloicus uniformis Butler. Proc. zool. Soc. Lond .: 261. 1903. Thamnoecha uniformis Rothschild & Jordan. Rev. Sphing.: 153. Male: Length of forewing: 23-25 mm (mi hi). Expanse: 50 mm (Dierl op. c it . ; Hampson 1892; Bell & Scott 1937) to 54 mm (Hampson 1892). Forewing to antenna ratio: 1.76: 1. Material Examined: 2 exs.: 5 .vii. 1 989, Katarmal 1 ,280 m Leg. R Smetacek; 2 1 .iii. 1 994, Jones Estate, Bhimtal, 1,500 m Leg. P. Smetacek. Diagnosis: Palpi, vertex of head, thorax and abdomen brownish-grey. The sides of head black. Vertex of thorax cinereous grey. Collar and tegulae proximally fringed with black. Antennae fasciculate, terminally swollen into a club and narrow at base. Antennae more than half the length of the forewing. Forewing grey with a proximally curved ferruginous medial band and two similar postmedial bands. The bands are distinctly marked in some individuals, nearly obsolete in others. One prominent black streak in the interspace between veins 2 (Cu2) and 3 (Cu,) and another above it in the interspace between veins 4 (M3) and 3 (Cu,). Rarely, there is a short black streak in the interspace between veins 5 (M2) and 4 (M3) as in the Nepalese specimen figured by Allen (1993). These marks are variable, one or the other might be longer or more heavily marked or one might be altogether obsolete. Dark points on the cilia at the veins. Hindwing reddish-brown, cilia grey. The verso surface is uniform grey, the cilia as on the recto surface except that on the hindwing, there are faint dark points discernible at the veins. In the Katarmal specimen, the medial area of the fore wing recto, between the rufous bands, is darker than the rest of the wing. Female: Length of forewing: 23 - 29 mm (mi hi). Expanse: 53 mm (Dierl op. cit.) to 66 mm (mihi). Forewing to antenna ratio: 2.15: 1 to 2.4: 1. Material Examined: 6 exs.: 2.vi.l974; 18.V.1989; 6.iv.l982; 5.vi.l998; 22.viii. 1997, all collected at Jones Estate, Bhimtal, 1,500 m, Coll. P. Smetacek; 7.vi.l925 Bhimtal, Maxwell Coll., BM 1967-553 (Coll. Natural History Museum, London) (Photograph of recto surface examined) Diagnosis: Palpi pale grey, sometimes nearly white, contrasting with the rest of the JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 27 INDIVIDUAL VARIATION AND SEXUAL DIMORPHISM IN TH AMNOECHA UMIFORMIS head. Vertex of head, vertex of thorax and abdomen grey. Collar and tegulae brownish-grey and defined proximally by a narrow black fringe. Antennae simple, narrow, terminally swollen into a prominent club, the tip tapering to a point but not hooked. Antennae less than half the length of the forewing. Forewing uniformly grey, the inner area faintly ferruginous or darker grey. Traces of one medial and two postmedial ferruginous bands on the costa of some individuals. These bands never reach below vein 4 (M3). The two black streaks in the interspaces between vein 4 (M3) and vein 2 (Cu2) are usually faint and often one or both are entirely obsolete. Cilia of forewing with prominent dark points at the veins. Hindwing uniformly brownish-grey in some individuals, grey in others. Verso surface uniformly grey with a fine marginal dark line to both wings. Discussion From the above, it is evident that there are modest but consistent differences between the sexes, both in the external structure as well as in the pattern. The structure and length of the antennae are the most evident external structural differences. Died (1970) noted that the antennae of the female are thinner than those of the male. This is due to the fascicles on the male’s antennae rather than their actual thickness, which is more or less the same as those of the female. Dierl also stated that the antennae of the female are shorter than the male, reaching only a little over half the length of the forewing costa. In the specimens examined in the present study, the antennae of the female are less than half the length of the forewing costa, while those of the male are more than half the length of the forewing costa. Contrary to Dierl’s (op. cit.) observation, size is not a distinguishing factor between the sexes. The usual expanse given for males by most authors is 50 mm. However, in Hampson’s (1892) description of Protoparce uniformis Butler, he gives an expanse of 54 mm for the material examined by him. Since only males were known at the time, it follows that this measurement applies to males. In the same work, Hampson described Pseudosphinx concolor for the first time and gave a measurement of 50 mm. P. concolor turned out to be a synonym of uniformis. Bell & Scott (1937) used Hampson’s (1892) description of concolor in their description of uniformis and apparently overlooked the measurement of 54 mm given by Hampson (op. cit.) for Protoparce uniformis. This presumption is strengthened by the fact that Protoparce uniformis is not mentioned in the synonymy by Bell & Scott (op. cit.), although Pseudosphinx concolor is included. It is noteworthy that in Hampson’s (op. cit.) description of Protoparce uniformis males, there is no mention of the horizontal black streaks on the fore wing recto between vein 2 (Cu2) and vein 4 (M3). Kitching {in litt.) notes that there are three males and four females in the collection of the Natural History Museum in London (UK). All are somewhat worn and faded, with the pattern difficult to distinguish. A specimen from this collection has been figured by D’Abrera (1986), and it is of interest that, on the basis of the characters of the antennae, the specimen is likely to be a female, not a male as stated. The specimen in the same collection from Bhimtal, of which a photograph was examined, is slightly worn, particularly on the distal half of the forewing recto. It lacks the horizontal black streaks on the forewing recto. Rothschild & Jordan (1903) note that in all the specimens examined by them, which are the three male specimens mentioned above, the tips of the antennae were broken off. The ferruginous bands on the forewing recto are usually more strongly developed in males than in females. Besides this, only females appear to have the black marginal line on the verso surface of both wings. 28 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 INDIVIDUAL VARIATION AND SEXUAL DIMORPHISM IN TH AMNOECHA UNIFORMIS The black streaks on the forewing are variable, but despite Hampson’s (op. cit.) description of male Protoparce uniformis mentioned above, which lacks these streaks, I am of the opinion that these streaks are prominent in males, while in females, they may be present, or one or more might be absent. I have a female in good condition, which entirely lacks both the black streaks. Refer Allen, M. (1993): Marvellous Moths of Nepal. Know Nepal Series, No. 6. Rohit Kumar, Lashkar, Madhya Pradesh. Pp. 13; pi. 10. Bell, T.R.D. & F.B. Scott (1937): The Fauna of British India including Ceylon and Burma. Moths Vol. V, Sphingidae. Taylor & Francis, London. Pp. xviii + 537; xv pi.; 1 map. D’Abrera, B. (1986): Sphingidae Mundi. E.W. Classey, Faringdon, U.K. Pp. 8 + 226. Dierl, W. (1970): Grundzuge Einer Okologischen Tiergeographie der Schwaermer Ostenepals. Khumbu Acknowledgements I am grateful to Ian J. Kitching of the Natural History Museum, London (UK) for his kind help which made this paper possible. I am also grateful to J.M. Cadiou for literature and the photograph of the specimen from Bhimtal, in the collection of the Natural History Museum, London and to the anonymous referees for their valuable suggestions. ENCES Himal Ergebn. Forsch.-Unt. Nep. Him. 3/3: 319-320. Hampson, G.F. ( 1 892): The Fauna of British India including Ceylon and Burma, Moths Vol. I. Taylor & Francis, London. Pp. xxiii + 527. Rothschild, W. & K. Jordan (1903): A Revision of the Lepidopterous Family Sphingidae. Nov. Zool. 9 ( Supp .): 972 pp., 67 pis. Smetacek, P. ( 1 994): An Annotated List of the Hawkmoths (Lepidoptera: Sphingidae) of Kumaon, N. India: A Probable Case of Faunal Drift. Rec. zool. Surv. Ind., Occ. Paper 156 : 1-55. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 29 PETA URISTA NOBILIS SINGHEI — FIRST RECORD IN INDIA AND A NOTE ON ITS TAXONOMY1 Anwaruddin Choudhury2 ( With one text-figure) Key words: Giant flying squirrel, Petaurista nobilis singhei, Arunachal Pradesh, West Kameng, northeastern India, distribution The giant flying squirrel Petaurista nobilis singhei is known only from Bhutan. Recently, some skins were examined and live animals observed in the wild in Arunachal Pradesh in northeastern India. This is the first record for the subspecies singhei in India, and the first record for the species P. nobilis, in northeastern India. Habitat the animal. Protected areas having this species Orchid Sanctuary, both in Arunachal Pradesh. Introduction Petaurista nobilis (Gray) is a poorly known giant flying squirrel, described from specimens obtained from Darjeeling, West Bengal. It is also found in the hills and mountains of Nepal and Sikkim (Ghose and Saha 1981). A new subspecies of Petaurista nobilis was described from specimens obtained in Bhutan. This new race was named singhei (Saha 1977). Larger size, richer colour and the absence of a pale mid-dorsal stripe distinguishes it from the nominate subspecies. During field survey in western Arunachal Pradesh, I came across both live animals as well as many preserved skins, which happened to be first records for the subspecies in India with an eastward range extension. Locally, the Sherdukpen people call it Khiaw. Study area and Methods The study area covered West Kameng district (26° 56'-27° 50’ N, 92° 01'-92° 56' E) of Arunachal Pradesh. The area was formerly 'Accepted February, 2001 2The Rhino Foundation for Nature in NE India, c/o Assam Co. Ltd. Bamunimaidam, Guwahati 781 021, Assam, India. loss and hunting are the main problems faced by are the Eaglenest Wildlife Sanctuary and Sessa referred to as part of the Balipara Frontier Tract of Assam, and the Kameng Frontier Tract of NEFA (Northeast Frontier Agency). The terrain is hilly and mountainous (part of the Eastern Himalaya) with elevation varying from 100 m in the south to more than 7,000 m at some of the peaks in the Great Himalaya. The field work was carried out from 100 to 4,000 m. North-south and east-west flowing rivers dissect the district, making long narrow valleys (Tenga, Rupa, Shergaon, Dirang and Sangti). The highest ranges are towards the north, while the lowest elevation is in the riverbeds near the Assam- Arunachal Pradesh border (around 1 00 m above msl.). The annual rainfall ranges from less than 2,000 mm in the north to more than 3,000 mm in the south. Several field trips were made to West Kameng (November 1997, April, July, August and November 1998, July, October and December 1 999, and April, May and October 2000) to study its wildlife. Some preserved skins were examined in the tribal villages, and the local villagers and hunters were also interviewed. The skins available in the village helped them to describe sightings. For direct observation, we made foot- transects along existing and new paths and trails, and vehicle-transects along roads and motorable tracks. Observations were aided with a pair of 30 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 FIRST RECORD OF PETAURISTA NOBILIS SINGHEI IN INDIA 10 x 50 binoculars and 10 x 46 telescope. Photographs were taken with a Canon T50 camera with 200 mm tele lens and a Nikon FM2. Results External measurements and coloration: Most of the specimens seen in different villages (skins) were examined using standard methods and photographed. The measurements are listed in Table 1 . The length of head and body ranged from 47 to 69 cm while that of tail, 51 to 61 cm. All the specimens examined have thick, woolly, glossy hair. The saddle is a rich maroon- brown. The shoulder patches extend along the sides of the body, and in some specimens may join at the lower back (behind the dark saddle). Colour varies from rich orange-buff to rich brownish-buff. Parachute varies from orange- yellow to ochraceous-brown. Tail-tip deep blackish or black. Underside light yellow-buff, almost uniform except near abdomen, which is richer. The dark saddle may join the dark area on head by a broad patch or a thin line. Mid- dorsal stripe present in one skin, but it is broken. Distribution and Habitat: Specimens were examined at Morsing, Tenzinggang, Shergaon, Thungre, and Tenga Valley, while live animals were observed between Lamacamp and Ramalingam, just outside Eaglenest and Sessa Orchid Sanctuaries (Fig. 1). Coordinates and elevations are given in Table 1 . The animals were found to occur in the wild in subtropical and temperate broadleaf forests, in the mountains from 1,500 m up to 2,300 m. The habitat near Tenzinggang nullah, from where a few were shot Fig. 1 : Map of the study area showing the places mentioned in the text (SOS Sessa Orchid Sanctuary, ENS Eaglenest Sanctuary) JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 31 FIRST RECORD OF PETAURISTA NOBILIS SINGHEI IN INDIA by hunters from Shergaon, is subtropical broadleaf. It may also occur in mixed broadleaf and coniferous forests (e.g., near Tenga Valley, Thungre). Ecology: Very little is known. Like other giant flying squirrels, singhei is also nocturnal. The specimens seen live, as well as those shot by local hunters, were all sighted at night. The live animals were seen feeding on the ground, on dirt road after dusk. They preferred new roadside cuttings. On examination of the feeding sites, nothing on the ground indicated that they were taking salt or minerals directly from the earth (primates and ungulates often haunt such new cuttings or slides for salt). A squirrel feeding on the ground almost came under our vehicle. It was rather unafraid and moved away slowly. At another site, one was by the side of the road and went down as we approached. Conservation issues: It is apparent that habitat loss and hunting for the pot are the main threats faced by singhei. The number of skins in just a few villages indicates that many are shot every year. Many hunters do not keep the skins. Also, there is apparently no trade, save for a few skins sold to visitors or army officials. Habitat loss is mainly due to felling. However, in view of the Supreme Court judgement, large-scale cutting has currently been stopped. In the 1980s and early 1 990s, most of the forest around Rupa, Thungre, and between Rupa and Shergaon was destroyed. The habitat near Shergaon and Tenzinggang is still good. But there is no future for these areas, as the community forests have been saved temporarily by a court judgement and villagers are waiting for the clearance from the court in future. The protected areas having singhei are Eaglenest Wildlife Sanctuary (217 sq. km) and Sessa Orchid Sanctuary (100 sq. km). Discussion The range of the species is now extended eastwards by more than 100 km. This is also the first record, for India, of the subspecies singhei which was known only from Bhutan (Saha 1977) where it has been recorded at Gomchu Valley ( c . 2,240-2,288 m), Paro (c. 2,440 m) and Mithangarh (c. 1,676 m). In the holotype and seven paratypes, tail length is always more than that of head and body, the difference being marginal (49:51 cm) to significant (48.7:59 cm). In the present study, in four skins, the head-body and tail were intact (Table 1). In only one case was the tail longer, while in the rest, the head and body were longer than the tail. The specimens of the present study were also larger than in previous records. The longest head and body length in Saha (1977) is given as 48.7 cm, and that of tail 59.0 cm (same specimen). In our study, all but one are larger in size (head and body max. 69 cm). However, in case of the tail only one exceeded 60.0 cm (61.0 cm). The largest specimen (overall: head-body and tail) in Saha (1977) was 107.7 cm while in the present case, it is 126.8 cm. Our records also show that there could be significant variations in the length of the tail and coloration in the species. The nominate subspecies P. n. nobilis (Gray) is known from Darjeeling, Sikkim and Nepal (Ghose and Saha 1981). The taxonomic status of nobilis was the subject of some controversy. The giant flying squirrels with prominent yellow shoulder patch, originally described as Sciuropterus [= Petaurista] magnificus Hodgson 1836, and Sciuropterus [= Petaurista ] nobilis Gray 1842 were synonymised by most authors. Blyth ( 1 863) treated Petaurista nobilis and Hodgson’s giant flying squirrel Petaurista magnificus as conspecific, likewise Ellerman (1963), and Ellerman and Morrison-Scott (1966). However, Wroughton (1911, 1919) treated nobilis as a separate species, but as a race of Petaurista albiventer (Gray). Corbett and Hill (1992) also treated it as a separate species. P. magnificus and P. nobilis have been isolated from their congenerics by the presence 32 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 FIRST RECORD OF PETAURISTA NOBILIS SINGHEl IN INDIA Table l MEASUREMENTS AND DETAILS OF LOCALITIES OF PETAURISTA NOBILIS SINGHEl Locally Coordinates of Locality of Collection /Sighting Elevation of Locality of Collection / Sighting (m above msl) Head and body of skin (cm) Tail (cm) (up to tip of the hair) Remarks Thungre 27° 07' N, 92° 25' E 1,800+ 47.0 51.0 April 1999 Shergaon 27° 07' N, 92° 15'E 2,000+ 62.0 (cut) April 1999 Shergaon 27° 07' N, 92° 15' E 2,000+ 59.5 57.0 April 1999 Shergaon 27° 07' N, 92° 25' E 2,000+ 69.0 57 .8 Some of the Shergaon specimens were shot near Tenzinggang Nala (27° 06' N, 92° 12’ E) 1 500 m + elevation) Between Lamacamp and Ramalingam 27° 09' N, 92° 27' E 2,100-2,300 2 seen live at 6-6.20 p.m. December 10, 1999 Morsing 27° 10' N, 92° 13' E 2,000+ ” “ May 2000; skin not measured Tenga Valley 27° ll’N,92°30'E 1,500+ 64.0 61.0 December 1 999 of distinct shoulder patches. Even Ellerman (1963) concluded that the two forms were seasonal variants. One obvious reason was lack of material. Ghose and Saha (1981) showed that besides coloration, there is significant difference in the skull. I suggest a common name “orange giant flying squirrel” for the species/subspecies. Acknowledgements For encouragement and support, 1 thank Ms Emily Chowdhary, Commissioner & Secretary to the Govt of Assam. For assistance during field survey in Arunachal, I thank S.N. Kalita (CCF-wildlife), M.K. Palit (former DFO- wildlife, Seijosa), C. Loma (DFO-wildlife, Seijosa), A.K. Singh (Range Officer, Ramalingam), S.K. Shome (i/c Range Officer, Ramalingam), B. Ali and B.C. Dey (both Foresters, Ramalingam), B.C. Hazarika, FG (WL), Ramalingam; T. Hazarika, FG (terr.) Ramalingam; Anupam Sharma, botanist; Moniram Gogoi, Rajesh Pachung, Dorji Raptan, Pemba Tamang (all retrenched Sanctuary Watchers); Srimanta Tamuli and Gajen Tamang. I also thank for their help and support, R.K. Das, DFO (wildlife) at Tezpur, Pankaj Sharma, Range Officer, Nameri National Park; N. Bhuiyan, brother-in-law of B.C. Hazarika; Nitu Phukan of Eco-camp, wife of B.C. Hazarika (FG-WL, Ramalingam), army posted at Ramalingam, Bisoy Boro, Moniram Boro, Painu Phiyang, Gajen Tamang, Bablu Dey, Mithun Sarkar, Lei Khandu Thungon of Shergaon, and the later Ledo Thungon of Extra-Assistant Commissioner’s Office at Kalaktang. Special thanks are due to Bir Bahadur Gurung and Hakeem, for accompanying me on many of the trips, and K.N. Thungon (teacher) of Shergaon, who was my virtual host in that area. References Blyth, E.K. (1863): Catalogue of the Mammalia in the Corbet, G.B. & J.E. Hill (1992): The mammals of the Museum of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. Bengal Indomalayan Region: a systematic review. Oxford Ptg. Co. Ltd., Calcutta. Pp. 187, xiii. University Press, London. Pp. 488, viii JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY 99(1), APR. 2002 33 FIRST RECORD OF PETAUR1STA NOBILIS SINGHEI IN INDIA Ellerman, J.R. (1963): The fauna of India including Pakistan, Burma and Ceylon. Mammalia, 3 (Rodentia) (1). Govt, of India, Delhi. Pp. 482, xxx. Ellerman, J.R. & T.C.S. Morrison-Scott (1966): Checklist of the Palaearctic and Indian mammals, 2nd edn. British Museum, London. Ghose, R.K. & S.S. Saha (1981): Taxonomic review of Hodgson’s giant flying squirrel Petaurista magnificus (Hodgson) (Sciuridae: Rodentia), with description of a new subspecies from Darjeeling district. West Bengal, India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 78: 93-102. Saha, S.S. ( 1 977): A new subspecies of the flying squirrel, Petaurista nobilis (Gray), from Bhutan. Proc. Zool. Soc., Calcutta 28(1975): 27-29. Wroughton, R.C. (1911): Oriental flying squirrels of the ‘ Pteromys ' group. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 20: 1012-1023. Wroughton, R.C. (1919): Summary of the results from the Indian Mammal Survey of the Bombay Natural History Society. Part 3. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 26: 338-379. ' 34 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 THE INITIAL COLONISATION OF THE YAMUNA FLOOD PLAIN BY THE SIND SPARROW PASSER PYRRHONOTUS 1 Bill Harvey2 and Suresh C. Sharma3 ( With two text-figures and one plate) Key words: Passer pyrrhonotus, Sind sparrow, Acacia nilotica , Haryana, canal, colonisation The Sind sparrow Passer pyrrhonotus appears to be spreading out of its traditional range in the Indus Basin in Pakistan and extreme northwest India. Birds were found in twelve sites near canals in eastern Haryana and north Delhi during January- August 2001 and successful breeding was first proved in June. Details of the sightings, observed habits and nesting are given with descriptions of the plumage. Introduction The Sind sparrow Passer pyrrhonotus was largely restricted to the Indus flood plain in Pakistan and its tributaries just extending into Punjab, in India. It was first described in 1844, but then lost to ornithologists until 1880. It took a further 50 years for it to be fully accepted as a full species; many earlier writers considered it to be a sub-species of the house sparrow Passer domesticus (Summers-Smith 1988). The synopsis (Ripley 1982) describes its range as “the plains of the Indus from Nowshera (c. 34 °N), the Jhelum district, Gurdaspur, Ferozepore and Ludhiana ... south to Sadhani, Hyderabad ( c . 25 °N) and the Nara canal in Sind.” Summers- Smith (1988) gives more detail for its Indian range; “into the Indian Punjab on the Beas river near Gurdaspur and along the Sutlej to Ladhowai (10 km north of Ludhiana)” and “found it regular along the Sutlej from Harike, east to the bridge on the main road between Ludhiana and Jullunder (Jalandhar), but not further upstream at Rupar.” There are old records from Baluchistan and neighbouring Iran (Summers- Smith 1988). Bapat (1993) records sightings in 'Accepted November, 2001 2N50 Panchsheel Park, New Delhi 110 017, India. ''Gokul Nagar, Rohtak Road, Sonipat 131 001 , Haryana, India. 1990 from Khari Nadi, c. 3 km west of Bhuj in Kutch, Gujarat, but gives very little detail. With our present knowledge of range and habitat requirements, this report requires substantiation. Apparently, the species has had a restricted range since it was discovered, with only circumstantial evidence of even short distance migrations. It is reportedly locally common within its range, but decidedly restricted to aquatic environments with trees, particularly the banks of large canals and rivers. This dependence on trees by or in water seems consistent, and claims for the species in other habitats need tabe reviewed with great care. First recorded occurrences in the Yamuna flood plain in 2001 SCS has birdwatched in Haryana for over 25 years. He has focused particularly on the waterways and marshes. On January 3, 2001 he found a male and two female Sind sparrows in a babul tree ( Acacia nilotica) along the village road between Chitana and Juan villages (15 km north of Sonipat), about 100 m from the Delhi canal. He had never encountered this species before in Haryana. On February 21 and 23, 2001 he found a flock of eight birds (three males and five females), again in babuls, near the village of Rohat, 8 km south of Sonipat, on the banks of the Delhi canal. He saw about the same number, JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 35 SIND SPARROW IN THE YAMUNA FLOOD PLAIN at the same location, on March 1 1 and 3 1 , and three birds on April 6 and 22. On April 8, he found a male near Mohamedabad village, 1 1 km south of Sonipat, on the Delhi canal banks. At the same site, he observed a mating pair in the first week of May and a male on June 3. Thus, three sites within 26 km in Sonipat district held around 15 individuals, from January-June 2001. In addition, SCS briefly saw one male accompanied by a possible female at the Bhindawas Sanctuary 80 km west-southwest of Delhi on April 22, 2001. This represents a considerable range extension from the Sonipat area. It is probably significant that both the Jawaharlal Nehru Feeder canal, which is connected with Bhindawas Lake via an escape channel, and the Delhi canal originate from the Western Yamuna canal at Sardhana Water Regulator in the Sonipat district. The Sardhana regulator is nearly 25 km north of Sonipat. Evidence of colonization of the Yamuna flood plain in 2001 On May 13, Bill Harvey (WGH) joined SCS and others to visit his Sonipat sites. At the Mohamedabad site, at least five individuals were seen and a nest located about 3 m high near the trunk of a babul. This nest was still active on May 15, but on May 20 it was deserted. However, its discovery prompted new efforts. After negative results along several kilometres of the Najafgarh drain on May 15, WGH found a singing male at Bhindawas on June 14 and a colony of at least eight active nests, with 1 1 males and 6 females, on the edge of an incipient water bird colony on an island in the lake, on June 15. On June 28, Nikhil Devasar (a bird watcher from Delhi) and WGH visited the site again to take photographs. They found around 30 birds, half of which were newly fledged juveniles. There were also about ten adult males and five females, some of which were associated with four new nests. The colony probably held a minimum of 1 0- 12 breeding pairs (the active heronry, which occupies two-thirds of the babuls on the island, was not examined to avoid disturbance, so the total could be two or three times that). Thus, in 2001 we obtained evidence for the first time that young Sind sparrows fledged successfully in Haryana. SCS found the first birds in Delhi region on June 23, with a male and two females in a babul on the Delhi canal bank between Harewali and Jhinjholi villages. At one of the original sites (Juan) he found four nests and associated birds within 100 m of the Delhi canal on June 24. On June 26, 2001, SCS found individuals at two different locations along the JLN Feeder Canal, again on babuls. The latter two locations are at least 30 km northwest of Sonipat and about 15 km apart. One was in Sonipat district and the other was in Rohtak district. New nest sites were found at Tehri on the JLN Feeder Canal (2 nests) on July 3, Kakroi (5 nests) on July 6 and Fatehpur (1 nest) on July 14. On July 29 and August 12, up to 5 birds were found along the Delhi Canal near Garhi Bala. Thus, the species has been recorded in twelve separate places in Haryana State and the Delhi region, with nests located at six of them, and at least 50 individuals, excluding fledged young. This suggests that colonisation is established and records from further sites near the canals and other waterways can be expected. The distribution of these new sites is indicated in Fig. 2. The current and historical distributions as on August 31, 2001 are indicated in Fig. 1. Field Descriptions Although the descriptions of this species available in various field guides are generally accurate, we did observe additional features. No individual variation has been noticed within the sexes. The species is usually initially identified by its subtly different voice, although visual features are striking in males at least, if every sparrow is examined. The species is not, in our 36 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 SIND SPARROW IN THE YAMUNA FLOOD PLAIN JAMMU KASHMIR HI MACH ALA PRADESH PUNJAB UTTARANCH. HARYANA RAJASTHAN UTTAR PRADESH MADHYA PRADESH 40 N — 35 N — 30 N — 25 N — 70 E 75 E 80 E Fig. 1 : The world range of the Sind sparrow (light grey) and the area of new colonisation (dark grey) view, obviously smaller than all house sparrows (often seen with or near Sind sparrows), but it is certainly slimmer, smaller headed and perhaps longer tailed. The bill is neater than that of a house sparrow with a finer, more pointed tip. The male has a distinctive, quite high- pitched and “rocking” song chitta chitta chitta, which is distinct from the chirruping song of house sparrows. Both sexes have a soft cheep cheep call, not markedly different from that of house sparrows but quieter. The call and the song are interspersed with a quite distinct, repeated tswep tswep call reminiscent of a white wagtail Motacilla alba. The males have a dove-grey forehead, crown and nape; paler grey on the collar and cheeks, contrasting with fairly broad sweeping stripes, from the eyes to half way round the cheeks, which are a distinct bright, russet chestnut, paler and brighter than the similar markings on male house sparrows. The mantle is rich brown with both darker and paler feather edgings, and merging into a distinctly brown back and rump, which in turn merges into narrow, grey upper tail coverts (in contrast to a male house sparrow which has the whole back, rump and upper tail coverts distinctly grey). The lesser coverts are distinctly chestnut and there JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 37 SIND SPARROW IN THE YAMUNA FLOOD PLAIN are obvious white tips to the median coverts, adding to the bird’s overall bright appearance. The cheeks are uniform pale grey, merging with limited or no contrast into a grey throat, breast and belly (most published illustrations show a strong contrast between the cheeks and the underparts, but this is not always obvious in the plumages we have been observing). The distinctive black bib is quite long and narrow with straight, clean-edged sides (thus rather 38 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 NIKHIL DEVASAR NIKHIL DEVASAR SIND SPARROW IN THE YAMUNA FLOOD PLAIN Harvey, Bill et al.\ Sind sparrow Passer pyrrhonotus Plate 1 Fig. 1: Male Sind sparrow removing material from old nest to construct new one Fig. 2: Female Sind sparrow JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 39 SIND SPARROW IN THE YAMUNA FLOOD PLAIN rectangular in shape) and quite unlike the round bib (whether small or large and blotched) of male house sparrows of any age. It is not the size of the bib that is important for identification, but the shape. The bills in May- June at least have all been blackish, indicating breeding condition. The female, although superficially like a female house sparrow, is more distinctive than the field guides suggest (Plate 1, Fig. 2). The broad sweeping pale whitish supercilia run back from the eyes and contrast much more with the plain, pale brown crown and very distinct concolorous grey cheeks. These, unlike in the male, contrast quite markedly with the more house sparrow-like buffish-white throat, breast and belly. The other striking feature is the distinct pale chestnut lesser wing coverts, very similar to those of yellow-throated sparrow Petronia xanthocollis . The bill is greyish horn on the upper mandible and yellow on the lower. The juveniles are similar to the females, but with obvious yellow gapes and fresh plumage. Young males had started developing the male head markings in late June (within two weeks of fledging at most). Habits Almost all observations have been of birds calling and/or singing in babul trees. Birds have frequently been observed picking food off babul leaves (or even, perhaps, eating the young leaves) and twice apparently feeding on the ground. A female has been observed feeding on a babul trunk in the manner of a tit ( Parus ). Birds have been seen collecting dry grass from the ground and feathers (from other birds' nests) in the course of nest building, and flying into reed-beds, perhaps with the same purpose. Eucalyptus and other tree species have been used as perches, but the dependence on babuls seems quite marked. There also seems to be a need to be within easy reach of reasonably natural wet grassland and reeds. Groves of babuls on canal banks, with no such marshland vegetation close by (as at Najafgarh) do not seem to be sufficient. As yet, we have only limited observations on their feeding habits and most prolonged observations have been at nest sites. Nesting All nests found (25 to date) have been in babul trees. The nest is untidy, oval or semi-oval, made of dry, yellowish grasses (often intermingled with feathers) and lined with finer grasses and feathers. The entrance hole is a quarter way down from the top. It resembles a house sparrow’s nest built in the open. Both sexes contribute to the building, although the males spend much time singing and calling while perched close to the nest. In Bhindawas, it was thought that the females were inside incubating or brooding in some cases. All the Sonipat area nests were “free-standing” and close to babul trunks in thick foliage (made so by pruning for fodder). Two nests were in one tree, but the other three were in their own trees. Nine of the nests at Bhindawas were in the base of other birds’ nests. We can find no reference to such breeding sites in the literature, although Summers-Smith (1988) mentions that Jones (1912) recorded them breeding in the old nests of baya weavers Ploceus philippinus. The old egret nests at Bhindawas provided the roof and the nest shape was less domed as a result. Seven were in old, probably egret, nests and two were in the base of nests of Asian pied starlings Sturnus contra. The starlings may still have occupied one of these nests, as one bird constantly visited and sat on top of the nest, calling. It did not enter the nest, however. This may have been no more than an interest in the new tenants. Two nests were free standing (as in the Sonipat area) and one was built on top of an old (probably egret) nest. A male was observed taking dry grasses from a much reduced used nest, from which young had recently fledged, and contributing JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 41 SIND SPARROW IN THE YAMUNA FLOOD PLAIN them to a new free-standing nest, presumably for a second brood. Each nest was in its own babul, 4-5 m above the ground in the canopy. The trees occupied were 10-20 m apart, so that all the calling and singing males were audible to each other. No interactions between different pairs were observed at Bhindawas during the two short visits. However, at the first nest found on May 13 near Mohamedabad, the nesting pair determinedly drove off other Sind sparrows that landed in the nest tree. Discussion Circumstantially, the evidence is that the Sind sparrow only colonised parts of Haryana (and Delhi) in 2001, but it has to be admitted that knowledge of the species and coverage of the area has always been extremely limited. It is feasible that colonisation has been progressing for a number of years and it may be that 2001 saw its first consolidation, thus making the species more obvious. But it is still extremely scarce and local everywhere. SCS has been very active in Haryana for many years, and it seems likely that the records from his area (and north Delhi) since January 2001 are genuinely new. In Bhindawas, given the generally inaccessible and inaudible nature of the colony (a wade through nearly 1 m of mud and water is required during the monsoon breeding season, and the birds are usually only audible from the bund at daybreak), it is possible that they have been overlooked by the infrequent birding visitors. SCS visited Bhindawas regularly from 1985-91, so any colonisation is likely to have begun after that date. Whatever the date of the initiation, and we are certainly talking of the 1990s at the earliest. In a relatively short time, the Sind sparrow, a hitherto largely sedentary and localized species, has crossed a major geographical divide and successfully established a breeding population. The main route into Haryana was probably the Western Yamuna Canal, which divides into the Delhi and Jawaharlal Nehru Feeder Canals at Sardhana. All records to the end of August 200 1 have been along or close to these two canals and their link canals. This may have involved crossing no more than a 100 km gap from the upper Sutlej to the Yamuna flood plain, most likely in the region of Ludhiana. Thus, the intricate system of canals, feeders and drains in the Punjab and Haryana has enabled the species to spread because of the eminently sensible practice of planting native babul trees along the bunds to stabilise the soil. Apart from the proximity of water, the major constant in the Sind sparrows’ ecological requirements appears to be the babul tree. Fig. 2 shows the main arteries of the system and the way they connect the established and new sites of the Sind sparrow in India. The species, if it continues to prosper, is on the threshold of the whole Gangetic system. It will be interesting to see if it takes advantage of the great waterways and their tributaries; or whether climatic and other ecological limitations hinder its spread much further. We need to find out much more about the species’ diet, social structure, breeding regime and habitat requirements. But it remains a delightful and much underestimated species, well able to co-exist with the house sparrow (its erstwhile, claimed conspecific), and clearly on the move. Acknowledgement We are grateful to Dr. Asad Rahmani for encouraging us to write this paper and for commenting constructively on the initial draft. 42 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 SIND SPARROW IN THE YAMUNA FLOOD PLAIN Refer Bapat, N.N. (1993): Sind sparrow Passer pyrrhonotus Blyth in northwest Gujarat J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc, 89: 378. Jones, A.E. (1912): Notes on birds from Lahore. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 21: 1073-1074. e n c e s Ripley, S.D. (1982): A Synopsis of the Birds of India and Pakistan. Bombay Natural History Society. Pp. 538. Summers-Smith, J. Denis (1988): The Sparrows. T + A.D. Poyses, Calton. Pp. 194-198. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 43 EDIBLE OYSTERS OF THE GENUS CRASSOSTREA SACCO 1897, ALONG THE RATNAGIRI COAST, MAHARASHTRA, INDIA1 M.S. Sawant and A.M. Ranade2 Key words: Edible oysters, Crassostrea gryphoides , Crassostrea madrasensis , Crassostrea rivularis , Ratnagiri coast The edible oysters, which provide subsistence level fishery along the Indian coastline, are represented in the Ratnagiri region, Maharashtra State, by three species, namely Crassostrea gryphoides , C. madrasensis and C. rivularis. Based on an extensive series of material, a simple key for their identification is formulated. Information is also given on major synonymy and local distribution. C. madrasensis is reported for the first time from the northwest coast of India. Introduction Edible oysters are one of the major seafood delicacies along the Indian coastal belt. They also form a subsistence level of fishery, almost throughout the year. Yet, surprisingly little information is available on their species composition, seasonal abundance and ecology, particularly for the Konkan coast of Maharashtra State (west coast of India). Investigation was, therefore, initiated in and around Ratnagiri town, which is one of the major molluscan fishery centres along the Konkan coast. It was revealed that the study area harbours only one oyster genus i.e. Crassostrea Sacco, which is described hereunder: Germs Crassostrea Sacco Diagnostic features: Shell valves rather elongate and dissimilar in shape and size; left valve, representing the lower side, attached to the substratum, right valve almost flat, covering the left from above. Hinge without teeth, and ligament partly external. Adductor scar situated dorsolaterally. Sexes separate, but occasional instances of sex reversal and hermaphroditism not uncommon. Oviparous with external fertilization. 'Accepted September, 1998 2College of Fisheries, Konkan Agricultural University, Shirgaon, Ratnagiri 415 629, Maharashtra, India. Remarks: The known eleven species of Indian edible oysters are all egg laying forms (= oviparous) and included presently under the genus Crassostrea : Durve (1967, 1973), Jones (1968), Imai (1971), Rao (1974, 1987). Early workers (Hornell 1910, 1918; Awati and Rao 1931) had erroneously placed them under genus Ostrea , which includes only larvae- releasing (= larviparous) forms. Of the 11 species, only 3 were recorded during our investigation, and can easily be distinguished by the following key: Key to the species of genus Crassostrea from the Ratnagiri coast 1. Shell valves more or less uniformly round; left valve rather shallow and attached to substratum with its entire outer surface. Umbonal cavity quite shallow. Adductor muscle scar (oblong) whitish. Almost entire inner surface of shell whitish .... Crassostrea rivularis (Gould 1861) — Shell valves rather irregular in shape; left valve considerably deep, cup-like and attached to substratum by only a small portion towards hinge. Umbo cavity quite deep. Adductor muscle scar (round or kidney shaped) either deep purplish- black or distinctly creamish 2 2. Shell oblong with purplish-black coloration along the margins of the valves. Adductor muscle scar round and distinctly purplish-black Crassostrea madrasensis (Preston 1916) 44 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 EDIBLE OYSTERS, CRASSOSTREA, ALONG THE RATNAGIR1 COAST — Shell oval with almost entire inner surface creamish. Adductor muscle scar kidney shaped and distinctly creamish Crassostreagryphoid.es (Schlotheim 1813) 1. Crassostrea gryphoides (Schlotheim 1813) Ostracites gryphoides Schlotheim, 1813: 6 (Type locality: Bay of Bengal). Ostrea gryphoides Vredenburg, 1904: 174; Awati & Rao, 1931: 6. Crassostrea gryphoides Durve & Bal, 1961: 70; Durve, 1967: 173; Rao, 1974: 27; 1987: 1. Common English Name: Indian backwater oyster (West coast oyster). Local, Marathi Name: Kaalav Material examined: About 500 specimens, size 3.70-16.0 cm, collected from various creeks in and around Ratnagiri, namely Bhatya, Sakhartar, Miry a, Purnagad, Saithawada, Jaitapur from June 1995 to May 1996. Remarks: Crassostrea gryphoides is essentially an euryhaline species inhabiting bays, lagoons, backwaters and creeks. In the open waters, it is found to penetrate up to a depth of 7 m. It is the most common species of oyster in the Ratnagiri region of the district, forming about 77% of the total oyster catch, with extensive beds along the creeks. The shell colour tends to vary with local ecological conditions. 2. Crassostrea madrasensis (Preston 1916) Ostrea madrasensis Preston, 1916 (Type locality: Ennur backwater, Madras) Awati and Rao, 1931: 111; Gravely, 1941: l;Paul, 1942: 1; Satyamurthi, 1956: 68. Ostrea cucullata Homell, 1910: 25. Ostrea virginica Annandale & Kemp, 1916: 329. Ostrea virginiana Hornell, 1922: 97. Ostrea virginiana var. madrasensis Moses, 1928: 548 Ostrea arakanensis Winckworth, 1931: 188. Ostrea ( Crassostrea ) madrasensis Rao, 1956: 332. Crassostrea madrasensis Rao, 1958: 55; 1974: 14; 1987: 1; Durve, 1967: 173. Common English Name: Indian backwater oyster (East coast oyster). Local, Marathi Name: Kaalav. Material examined: About 100 specimens, size: 3.7-16.2 cm, collected from Bhatya, Sakhartar and Mirya creeks near Ratnagiri from June 1995 to May 1996. Remarks: Despite being an euryhadne species like Crassostrea gryphoides , C. madrasensis exhibits greater penetration into open waters, to a depth of 17 m. So far, it was known only from east and southwest coasts of India (Alagarswami and Narasimham 1973). This is, therefore, the first record of C. madrasensis along the northwest coast of India. The species is second in abundance along the Ratnagiri waters, forming about 14% of the total oyster catch. Large to medium size beds of this species are known to occur in Bhatya, Sakhartar and Mirya creeks. Their shell coloration varies according to different localities. 3. Crassostrea rivularis (Gould 1861) Ostrea rivularis Gould, 1861: 178 (Type locality: China seas); Cahn, 1950: 12. Ostrea discoidea Awati & Rao, 1931 : 3. Crassostrea discoidea Rao, 1958: 55; Alagarswami & Narasimham, 1973; 654; Rao, 1974: 36. Crassostrea rivularis Imai, 1971: 125; Rao, 1987: 1. Common English Name: Chinese oyster. Local, Marathi Name: Kaalav. Material examined: About 60 specimens, size 5.4-11.5 cm, collected from Bhatya and Sakhartar creeks near Ratnagiri from June 1995 to May 1996. Remarks: Crassostrea rivularis appears to be the least common of ad local species, forming about 9% of the total oyster yield of the JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 45 EDIBLE OYSTERS, CRASSOSTREA, ALONG THE RATNAGJRJ COAST region. Its beds are located at Bhatya and Sakhartar creeks and in open waters it has restricted distribution, to a depth of 7 m only. Conclusion: From the foregoing account, it appears that the Indian west coast backwater oyster Crassostrea gryphoides is the most common species inhabiting the Ratnagiri waters, followed by C. madrasensis and C. rivularis in order of abundance. This is also the first record of the Indian east coast backwater oyster C. madrasensis along , Refer Alagarswami, K. & K.A. Narasimham (1973): Clam, Cockle and Oyster resources of the Indian coast. Proc. symp. Living resources of the seas around India, 648-658. Annandale, N. & S. Kemp (1916): Fauna of Chilka lake Mollusca, Gastropoda and Lamellibranchiata. Mem. lnd. Mus. 5: 329-366. Awati, RR. & H.S. Rao (1931): The Indian Zoological Memoirs on Indian Animal Types. 3. Ostrea cucullata (The Bombay oyster): 1-104. Cahn, A. C. ( 1 950): Oyster culture in Japan. Published by Gen. H.Q. Supreme Commander for the Allied Forces, Natural Resources Section Report , 134, Tokyo, pp. 80. Durve, V.S. (1967): On the nomenclature of two Indian backwater oysters. J. Mar. biol. Ass. India. 9(1): 173- 178. Durve, V.S. ( 1 973): Malacological differences between the oyster Crassostrea gryphoides (Schlotheim) and Crassostrea madrasensis (Preston). Indian J. Fish. 20(2): 624-625. Durve, V.S. & D.V. Bal (1961): Studies on the chemical composition of the oyster, Crassostrea gryphoides (Schlotheim). J. Mar. biol. Ass. India 13: 70-77. Gould, A. A. (1861): Proc. Boston. Soc. nat. Hist. 8: 39, repr. in Otia Conchologia p: 178. Gravely, F.H. (1941): Shells and other animal remains found on the Madras beach. 1 . Groups other than snails etc. (Mollusca, Gastropoda). Bull. Madras Govt. Mus. N.S. Nat. Hist., 5(1): 1-112. Hornell, J. (1910): The practice of oyster culture at Arcachon, Madras Fish. Bull. 5: 1-90. Hornell, J. (1918): The edible molluscs of the Madras Presidency. Madras Fish. Bull. 11: 1-51. Hornell, J. (1922): The Common Molluscs of South India. Madras Fish. Bull. 14:91-215. Imaj Takeo (1971): Aquaculture in shallow seas: Progress in Shallow sea culture: 1 25- 1 26, 205-260. the northwest coast of India. Acknowledgements We are grateful to Dr. RC. Raje, Associate Dean, College of Fisheries, Ratnagiri and the Konkan Krishi Vidyapeeth, Dapoli, Ratnagiri for facilities. Our special thanks to the Late Dr. D.R. Jalihal for help in taxonomic identification and valuable suggestions. E N C E S Jones, S. (1968): The molluscan fishery resources of India. Proc. Symp. Mollusca (3): 906-918. Moses, S.T. (1928): A preliminary report on the anatomy and life history of the common edible backwater oyster Ostrea madrasensis. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 32: 548-552. Paul, M.D. ( 1 942): Studies on the growth and breeding of certain sedentary organisms in the Madras harbour. Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. Pp. 1-42. Preston, H.B. (1916): Report on a collection ofMollusca from the Cochin backwaters. Rec. Indian Mus., 12: 27-39. Rao, K. Satyanarayana (1974): Edible bivalves: mussels and oysters In: The Commercial Molluscs of India, R.V. Nair & K.S. Rao. (Eds.) CMFRI bulletin no. 25: 4-39. Rao, K. Satyanarayana (1987): Taxonomy of Indian Oysters. CMFRI bulletin no. 38 Oyster culture Status and Prospects. 1-6. Rao V irbhadra, K. ( 1 956): Seasonal changes in the adult backwater oyster Ostrea (Crassostrea) madrasenis (Preston) from Ennur near Madras. Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. 44b: 332-356. Rao V irbhadra, K. (1958): Molluscan Fisheries. In: Fisheries of West Coast of India (Ed.: Jones, S.). Pp. 55-59. Satyamurthi, S.T. (1956): The Mollusca ofKrusadai Island (in Gulf of Mannar) 2. Scaphopoda, Pelecypoda and Cephalopoda. Bull. Madras Govt. Mus. (New Ser.). Nat. Hist. Sect., 1(1): Pt. 7: 202. Schlotheim (18 13): Beitr. Natur. Verstein. Geogn. Hinsicht, Taschenbuch Mineralogies 7: 52 (Reprinted in the Records of the Geological Survey of India 42: Part 1 , 1912 1-15). Vredenburg, E.W. (1904): Recent and subrecent marine beds in Calcutta. Rec. Geol. Surv. India 31: 174-176. Winckworth, R. (1931): Mollusca from the Pulicat lake. Proc. Malacol. Soc. London 19: 188-189. 46 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 FRESHWATER FISHES OF SOUTHERN KERALA WITH NOTES ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF ENDEMIC AND ENDANGERED SPECIES' K. Raju Thomas* 2, M. John George3 and C. R. Biju2 Key words: Freshwater fishes, southern Kerala, distribution, endemic, endangered Freshwater fishes were collected from rivers of southern Kerala from November 1996 to April 2000. A total of 117 species belonging to 58 genera, 27 families, and 10 orders were recorded. The most abundant order was Cypriniformes, followed by Perciformes and Siluriformes. The distribution of 36 endangered and 1 1 endemic species is also included. Most of the endangered fish are restricted to one or two rivers. Introduction The Western Ghats are one of the selected biodiversity hotspots in the world. According to the distribution of hill-stream fishes, Bhimachar (1945) has divided the Western Ghats into three major regions. These geographic regions are northern division (Surat to Goa), central division (Goa to Nilgiri mountains) and southern division (south of Palghat Gap). The Western Ghats form the major watershed in Kerala and 44 rivers originate from it. Of these, 19 rivers and a portion of Bharathapuzha river flow through the southern part of Kerala. The freshwater fishes collected from these rivers and the distribution of endemic and endangered species are given in this paper. The first monumental work on fishes of malabar was by Francis Day (1865). The next ichthyofaunal study in southern Kerala was by Pillay ( 1 929) followed by John ( 1 936). Hora and Law (1941) published a comprehensive list of freshwater fishes from Travancore. Other intensive freshwater fish fauna studies were conducted in southern Kerala by Raj (1941), Herre (1942), Silas (1950, 1951, 1954, 1958), 'Accepted August, 2001 2Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House, S B. Singh Road, Mumbai 400 023, Maharashtra, India. Present address: Mar Thoma College, Thiruvalla689 103, Kerala, India. ’Mar Thoma College for Women, Perumbavoor, Ernakulam 683 542, Kerala, India. Menon (1950, 1951), Rita et al. (1978), Rema Devi and Indra (1984), Rema Devi and Menon ( 1 992), Pethiyagoda and Kottelat ( 1 994), Menon and Rema Devi (1995), Menon and Jacob (1996), Easa and Shaji (1996), Zacharias et al. (1996), Biju et al. (1999), Ajith Kumar et al. (1999) and Raju Thomas et al. (1999, 2000a, b). Though there are a number of publications on freshwater fish fauna from southern Kerala, studies on fish assemblages have been carried out only in a few river segments. We provide an updated assessment of the conditions and status of the freshwater fishes in southern Kerala, with special reference to species regarded as endemic and endangered. Study Area Kerala is situated in the southwest corner of India (8° 17' 30"-12° 47 40” N and 74° 51' 57". 77° 24’ 47" E). The Western Ghats, as a natural wall on the eastern side, and the Arabian Sea on the western side, flank the State. The Western Ghats protect the State from the dry winds of the eastern plateau and provide steady rainfall during the monsoon. This range has only one major discontinuity — the Palghat Gap in Kerala, dividing the state into two parts: north and south of Palghat Gap. We selected the southern part as our study area. Natural topographic features such as mountain ridges and valleys divide southern Kerala into a number of divisions: Agasthyamalai Range, Pandalam JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 Al FRESHWATER FISHES OF SOUTHERN KERALA Hills, Cardamom Hills, The High Ranges, and the Nelliampathy and Anaimalai Hills (Nair 1991). The land resources of these areas generally fall into four well defined natural divisions: 1) Lowland (< 75 m above msl), 2) Midland (75 to 500 m above msl), 3) Highland (500 to 750 m above msl), and 4) High Ranges (> 750 m above msl). The highest peak in the Western Ghats, the Anamudi (2,690 m above msl) is situated in the study area. Most of the reserve forests and sanctuaries of the study area are in the Highland region. Eravikulam is the only national park in this area. The study area includes the following sanctuaries: Neyyar, Chendurni, Peppara, Periyar, Idukki, Thattekkad, Chimmony, Parambikulam, and Peechi-Vazhani. In the present study, fishes were collected from 19 rivers and also from a portion of the Bharathapuzha river. Specimens were collected from all the rivers except Peppara Sanctuary area of Karamana river, Chendurni Sanctuary of Kallada river, and Periyar Sanctuary area of Periyar river. Methods A survey was carried out during November 1996 to April 2000 in the rivers flowing through southern Kerala. Studies were mainly done in the post-monsoon periods. However, some collections were made during pre-monsoon and monsoon periods. 1 : 50,000 topographical maps of the Survey of India were used to trace the river system and pinpoint the collection sites. Samples were collected from several approachable areas of each stream of the main river. As our study period was post-monsoon, the water was rarely turbid. Fish samples were collected by using cast net, scoop net, gill net, and a circular net with very small mesh size and sinkers on the edge. Constant efforts were made to reduce statistical bias. Samples were preserved in 10% formaline and kept in the field station for identification and further studies. The works of Jayaram (1981, 1999), Datta Munshi and Srivastava (1988), Talwar and Jhingran (1991), and Menon (1998) were followed for the identification of fishes. According to the IUCN criteria, the fishes of Kerala can be grouped into two categories: Threatened and Non-threatened. The category Threatened is further divided into (1) Critically Endangered (CR), (2) Endangered (EN), and (3) Vulnerable (VU). The Non-threatened category is divided into (1) Low Risk-nearly threatened (LR-nt) and (2) Low Risk- of least concern (LR- lc). These criteria are more applicable to a single river. Since we had covered 20 rivers, we adopted the IUCN criteria with some modifications. In our analysis, we classified the species based on restricted distribution of the species, area of occupancy of the species, and the number of species recorded. The criteria adopted are as follows: Critically Endangered: (a) species with distribution restricted to a single river, (b) area of occupancy limited to a single location in that river, and (c) the number of species estimated to be less than five in the collection site. Endangered: (a) species with distribution restricted to 1 -3 rivers, (b) area of occupancy of less than 5 collection sites in the rivers from where they are recorded, and (c) the number of species estimated to be less than 10 in the collection sites. Vulnerable: (a) species with distribution restricted to 4-8 rivers, (b) area of occupancy of less than 10 collection sites in the rivers from where they were collected, and (c) the number of species estimated to be less than 10 in the collection sites. Low Risk-nearly threatened: (a) species with wide distribution in 8-15 rivers, (b) area of occupancy of more than 20 collection sites in the rivers from where they were recorded, and (c) the number of species estimated to be less than 15 in the collection sites. 48 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 FRESHWATER FISHES OF SOUTHERN KERALA Low Risk-least concern: (a) species with wide distribution in more than 15 rivers, (b) area of occupancy of more than 20 collection sites in the rivers from where they were recorded, and (c) the number of species estimated to be more than 15 in the collection sites. Results and Discussion A total of 1 1 7 species of freshwater fishes, belonging to 58 genera of 27 families and 10 orders were recorded from the rivers flowing through southern Kerala (Table 1). The most abundant order was Cypriniformes, followed by Perciformes and Siluriformes. The family with the maximum number of representatives was Cyprinidae. The most abundant genus was Puntius followed by Mystus and Nemacheilus. The list of Critically Endangered and Endangered species is given in Table 2. Under these categories, 26 species were recorded from a single river alone. All these species are considered threatened, as their distribution is restricted and there is an alarming decrease in their numbers. The following are considered as endemic species: Puntius denisonii (Day), Osteobrama bakeri Day, Garra surendranathanii Shaji et al, Osteochilus longidorsalis Pethiyagoda and Kottelat, Chela fasciata Silas, Travancoria jonesi Hora, Nemacheilus pambarensis Rema Devi and Indra, N. keralensis Rita and Nalbant, Horabagrus brachysoma (Gunther), H. nigricollaris Pethiyagoda and Kottelat, and Batasio travancoria Hora and Law. Distribution of most of these species is given in Table 2. Puntius denisonii inhabit Bharathapuzha, Chalakudy, Periyar, Pamba and Achankovil rivers, Osteobrama bakeri inhabit Bharathapuzha, Karuvannur, Chalakudy, Periyar, Muvattupuzha, Meenachil, Achankovil and Manimala rivers, while Horabagrus brachysoma is distributed in almost all the river systems of southern Kerala. Table 1 SYSTEMATIC LIST, ABUNDANCE AND STATUS OF FRESHWATER FISHES COLLECTED FROM SOUTHERN KERALA No. Name of Species Abundance Status 1 Order I: Osteoglossiformes 1. Family: Notopteridae Notopterus notopterus (Pallas) + VU 2 Order II: Anguilliformes 2. Family: Anguillidae Anguilla bengalensis (Gray) +++ LR-nt 3 A. bicolor bicolor McClelland + VU *4 3. Family: Ophichthidae Pisodonophis boro (Ham.) + EN 5 Order III: Clupeiformes 4. Family: Clupeidae Dayel/a malabarica (Day) +++ LR-lc 6 Order IV: Cypriniformes 5. Family: Cyprinidae Cat la cat la (Ham.) ++ INTR 7 Cirrhinus mrigala (Ham.) ++ INTR 8 Ctenopharyngodon idellus (Val.) ++ INTR 9 Cyprinus carpio communis L. +++ INTR 10 Hypselobarbus curmuca (Ham.) ++ VU 11 H. kolus (Sykes) ++ VU 12 H. kurali Menon and Rema Devi +++ VU *13 H. thomassi (Day) + EN 14 Labeo calbasu (Ham.) + VU 15 L. rohita (Ham.) +++ INTR 16 Osteobrama bakeri Day ++ VU *17 O. cotio peninsularis Silas + EN *18 Osteochilus longidorsalis + EN *19 Pethiyagoda and Kottelat O. nashii (Day) + EN *20 O. thomassi (Day) + EN 21 Barbodes carnaticus (Jerdon) ++ VU 22 B. sarana subnasutus (Val.) +++ LR-lc 23 Puntius amphibius (Val.) ++++ LR-lc 24 P arulius (Jerdon) +++ VU 25 P. chola (Ham.) +++ LR-lc 26 P. conchonius (Ham.) ++ LR-nt 27 P. denisonii (Day) 4- VU 28 P. dorsalis (Jerdon) ++ VU 29 P. filamentosus (Val.) ++++ LR-lc 30 P jerdoni (Day) ++ VU 31 P. melanampyx (Day) +++ LR-lc JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 49 FRESHWATER FISHES OF SOUTHERN KERALA Table 1 (contd.) SYSTEMATIC LIST, ABUNDANCE AND STATUS OF FRESHWATER FISHES COLLECTED FROM SOUTHERN KERALA No. N ame of Species Abundance Status No. Name of Species Abundance Status *32 P. melanostigma (Day) + EN Order V: Siluriformes *33 P. ophicephalus Raj 4- CR 8. Family: Bagridae 34 P. parrah Day ++ LR-nt 73 Horabagrus brachysoma 35 P. sophore (Ham.) ++ LR-nt (Gunther) ++ VU 36 P. ticto (Ham.) ++++ LR-lc *74 H. nigricollaris 37 P. vittatus Day ++++ LR-lc Pethiyagoda and Kottelat + CR 38 Tor khudree (Sykes) ++ VU *75 Batasio travancoria *39 Chela fas data Silas + EN Hora and Law ++ EN 40 Salmostoma ac inaces (Val.) ++ VU 76 Mystus armatus Day +++ LR-nt 41 S. boopis (Day) +++ LR-nt *77 M. bleekeri (Day) + EN *42 S. clupeiodes Bloch + EN 78 M. cavasius (Ham.) ++ LR-nt 43 Amblypharyngodon melettinus 79 M. gulio (Ham.) +++ LR-lc (Val.) ++++ LR-lc 80 M. malabaricus (Jerdon) ++ VU 44 Barilius bakeri Day +++ LR-nt *81 M. montanus (Jerdon) + EN 45 B. bendelisis (Ham.) ++ VU 82 M. oculatus (Val.) ++++ LR-lc *46 B. canarensis (Jerdon) + EN *83 M. punctatus (Jerdon) + EN 47 B. gatensis (Val.) +++ LR-nt *84 M. vittatus (Bloch) + EN 48 Danio aequipinnatus 9. Family: Claridae (McClelland) ++++ LR-lc 85 Clarias dussumieri (Val.) ++ VU 49 D. malabaricus (Jerdon) ++++ LR-lc 10. Family: Claridae 50 Parluciosoma daniconius (Ham.) ++++ LR-lc 86 Heteropneustes fossilis (Bloch) ++ VU 51 Esomus danricus (Ham.) ++ VU 11. Family: Siluridae *52 E. thermoicos (Val.) + EN 87 Ompok bimaculatus (Bloch) +++ LR-nt *53 Garra mcclellandi (Jerdon) ++ EN *88 O. malabaricus (Val.) ++ EN *54 G. menoni Rema Devi and Indra ++ EN 89 Wallago attu (Schneider) +++ LR-nt 55 G. mullya (Sykes) ++++ LR-lc 12. Family: Schilbeidae *56 G. hughi Silas + EN *90 Pseudeutropius mitchelli 57 G. gotyla stenorhynchus (Jerdon) ++ VU Gunther + EN *58 G. surendranathanii Shaji etal. ++ EN 13. Family: Sisoridae *59 Horalabiosa joshuai Silas + CR *91 Glyptothorax annandalei + EN 6. Family: Balitoridae Hora 60 Bhavania australis (Jerdon) ++ VU 92 G. madraspatanus (Day) ++ VU *61 Balitora mysorensis Hora + CR *93 G. lonah (Sykes) + EN *62 Travancoria jonesi Hora + EN Order V 1 : Salmoniformes 63 Nemacheilus denisoni denisoni 14. Family: Salmonidae Day ++ VU 94 Salmo gairdnerii irredius *64 N. pambarensis Richardson + INTR Rema Devi and Indra + EN Order VII: Cyprinodonti formes *65 N. evezardi Day + EN 15. Family: Belonidae 66 N. guentheri Day +++ LR-nt 95 Xenentodon cancila (Ham.) ++++ LR-lc *67 N. keralensis (Rita et al.) ++ EN 16. Family: Aplocheilidae *68 N. monilis Hora + CR 96 Aplocheilus lineatus (Val.) ++++ LR-lc *69 N. semiarmatus Day ++ EN 17. Family: Poecilidae 70 N. triangularis Day +++ LR-lc 97 Lebistes reticulata Peters ++ INTR 7. Family: Cobitidae Order VIII: Syngnathiformes *71 Pangio goaensis (Tilak) + EN 18. Family: Syngnathidae 72 Lepidocephalus thermal is (Val.) ++-H- LR-lc 98 Microphis cuncalus (Ham.) +++ LR-lc 50 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 FRESHWATER FISHES OF SOUTHERN KERALA Table 1 (contd.) SYSTEMATIC LIST, ABUNDANCE AND STATUS OF FRESHWATER FISHES COLLECTED FROM SOUTHERN KERALA No. Name of Species Abundance Status No. Name of Species Abundance Status Order IX: Perci formes 23. Family: Anabantidae 19. Family: Ambassidae 109 Anabas testudineus (Bloch) -4-++ LR-lc 99 Chanda nama (Ham.) LR-nt 24. Family: Belontidae 100 Parambassis dayi 110 Macropodus cupanus (Val.) +++ LR-lc (Bleeker) ++++ LR-lc 25. Family: Channidae 101 P. thomassi (Day) ++ LR-nt 111 Channa ma nil ins (Ham.) +++ VU 20. Family: Nandidae 112 C. orienta/is 102 Nandus nandus (Ham.) +++ LR-lc Bloch and Schneider ++ VU 103 Pristolepis marginata 113 C. punctatus (Bloch) ++ VU Jerdon ++ VU 114 C. striatus (Bloch) +++ VU 2 1 . Family: Cichlidae 26. Family: Mastacembelidae 104 Etroplus maculatus (Bloch) ++++ LR-lc 115 Mastacembelus armatus 105 E. snratensis (Bloch) +++ LR-lc (Lacepede) +++ LR-nt 106 Oreochromis mossambica 116 Macrognathus guentheri (Day) +++ LR-nt (Peters) ++++ INTR Order X: Tetraodonti formes 22. Family: Gobiidae 27. Family: Tetraodonti dae 107 Glossogobius giuris (Ham.) ++++ LR-lc 117 Tetraodon travancoricus *108 Sicyopterus griseus (Day) + EN Hora and Nair +++ VU CR - Critically Endangered; EN - Endangered; VU - Vulnerable; LR-nt - Low Risk-nearly threatened; LR-lc - Low Risk-least concern; INTR - Introduced; + = Very rare; ++ = Rare; +++ = Common; ++++ = Very common; * = Critically endangered / Endangered species Table 2 LIST OF CRITICALLY ENDANGERED AND ENDANGERED FISHES AND THEIR DISTRIBUTION IN SOUTHERN KERALA No.NameofSpecies Distribution No. Name of Species Distribution 1 Pisodonophis boro (Ham. ) Periyar and Achankovil 1 3 Garra mcclellandi (Jerdon) Chalakudy, rivers Bharathapuzha and 2 Hypselobarbus thomassi Periyar rivers (Day) Periyar river 14 G. menoni Rema Devi & Pambar river 3 Osteobrama cotio Indra peninsularis Silas Periyar river 15 G. hughi Silas Pambar river 4 Osteochilus longidorsalis Chalakudy river 1 6 G. surendranathanii Chalakudy, Periyar and Pethiyagoda and Kottelat Shaji etal. Pamba rivers 5 O. nashii (Day) Periyar river 17 Horalabiosa joshuai Silas Pambar river 6 O. thomasii (Day) Periyar river 1 8 Balitora mysorensis Hora Bharathapuzha river 7 Puntius melanostigma Achankovil river (Day) 1 9 Travancoria jonesi Hora Chalakudy and Periyar 8 P. ophicephalus Raj Periyar river rivers 9 Chela fasciata Silas Bharathapuzha river 20 Nemacheilus pambarensis Rema Devi and Indra Pambar river 1 0 Salmostoma clupeoides Chalakudy and Periyar 2 1 N. evezardi (Day) Pambar river (Bloch) rivers 22 N. keralensis Rita et al. Periyar and 1 1 Barilius canarensis (Jerdon) Bharathapuzha and Muvattupuzha Manimala rivers rivers 12 Esomus thermoicos (Val.) Bharathapuzha river 23 N. monilis Hora Pambar river JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 51 FRESHWATER FISHES OF SOUTHERN KERALA Table 2 (contd.) LIST OF CRITICALLY ENDANGERED AND ENDANGERED FISHES AND THEIR DISTRIBUTION IN SOUTHERN KERALA No. Name of Species Distribution 24 N. semiarmatus (Day) Pambar river 25 Pangio goaensis (Tilak) Manimala river 26 Horabagrus nigricollaris Pethiyagoda and Kottelat Chalakudy river 27 Batasio travancoria Pamba, Manimala, and Hora and Law Periyar rivers 28 Mystus bleekeri (Day) Neyyar river 29 M. montanus (Jerdon) Periyar river 30 M. punctatus (Jerdon) Karuvannur river 31 M. vittatus (Bloch) Periyar river 32 Ompok malabaricus (Val.) Chalakudy and Karuvannur rivers 33 Pseudeutropius mitchelli Gunther Periyar river 34 Glypotothorax annandalei (Hora) Muvattupuzha river 35 G. lonah (Sykes) Chalakudy river 36 Sicyopterus griseus (Day) Chalakudy and Periyar rivers Refer Ajithkumar, C.R., K. Rema Devi, K. Raju Thomas & C.R. Biju ( 1 999): Fish fauna, abundance and distribution in Chalakudy river, Kerala. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 96(2): 244-254. Bhimachar, B.S. (1945): Zoogeographical divisions of the Western Ghats, as evidenced by the distribution of the hillstream fishes. Curr. Sci. I: 12-16. Biju, C.R., K. Raju Thomas & C.R. Ajithkumar (1999): Fishes of Parainbikulam Wildlife Sanctuary, Palakkad District, Kerala. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 96(1): 82-87. Datta Munshi, J.S. & M.R Srivastava (1988): Natural History of Fish and Systematics of Freshwater Fishes of India. Narendra Publishing House, New Delhi. Day, F. (1865): The fishes of Malabar. Bernard Quaritch, London. Repr. Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehra Dun. Easa, P.S & C.P. Shaji. (1996): Freshwater fishes of Pambar river, Chinnar Wildlife Sanctuary, Kerala. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 93: 304-306. Gadgil, M. & V.M. Meher-Homji (1990): Ecological Diversity. In: Conservation in Developing Countries — Problems and Prospects (Eds. Daniel, J.C. and J.S. Serrao). Bombay Natural History Society, Mumbai. Pp. 175-198. Acknowledgements We thank the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service and the Ministry of Environment and Forests for sponsoring the project on ‘Ecology of hill streams of the Western Ghats with special reference to fish community’ this paper is an outcome of the project. We are grateful to Mr. J. C. Daniel, Honorary Secretary, Dr. Asad R. Rahmani, Director and Dr. B.F. Chhapgar of the BNHS for encouragement and the State Forest Department of Kerala for permission and help to carry out collections. We thank Dr. Neil B. Armantrout, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, and Dr. K. Rema Devi, Scientist, Zoological Survey of India, Chennai for discussions, Dr. R. Sugathan, Scientist, Salim Ali Wild Wings Trust, Thattakad Bird Sanctuary and Dr. N.D. Inasu, Department of Zoology, Christ College Irinjalakkuda, for help. E N C E S Herre, A.W.C.T. (1942): Glyptothorax honsei, a new Sisorid catfish from South India. Stanford Ichth. Bull. 2(4): 117. Hora, S.L. & N.C. Law (1941): The freshwater fishes of Travancore. Rec. Ind. Mus 43: 234-256. Jayaram, K.C. (1981): Freshwater fishes of India. A handbook of the Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta, pp. 475. Jayaram, K.C. (1999): Freshwater fishes of the Indian Region. Narendra Publishing House, Delhi, India. Pp. 551. John, C.C. (1936): Freshwater fishes of Travancore. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 38: 702-733. Menon, A.G.K. ( 1 950): On a remarkable blind Sisorid fish of the Family Clariidae from Kerala (India). Rec. Ind. Mus. 48: 59-69. Menon, A.G.K. (1951): Notes on fishes in the Indian Museum XLVL: On a new fish of the genus Labuca from Cochin. Rec. Ind. Mus. 49: 14. Menon, A.G.K. & K. Rema Devi (1995): Hypselobarbus kurali (Pisces: Cyprinidae), a new large barb from the southwestern rivers of Peninsular India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 92(3): 389-393. Menon, A.G.K. & P.C. Jacob (1996): Crossocheilus periyarensis , a new Cyprinid fish from Thanikkudy 52 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY 99(1), APR. 2002 FRESHWATER FISHES OF SOUTHERN KERALA (Thekkady), Kerala, India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 93(1): 62-64. Menon, A.G.K. (1998): Checklist of freshwater fishes of India. Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta. Nair, S.C. (1991): The Southern Western Ghats - A Biodiversity Conservation Plan, INTACH, New Delhi. Pethiyagoda, R. & M. Kottelat (1994): Three new species of fishes of the genera Osteochilichthys (Cyprinidae), Travancoria (Balitoridae) and Horabagrus (Bagridae) from the Chalakudy River, Kerala, India. J. South Asian nat. Hist. I : 97-116. Pillay, R.S.N. ( 1 929): A list of fishes taken in Travancore. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 33: 347-379. Raju Thomas, K., C.R. Biju, C.R. Ajithkumar & M. John George ( 1 999): Ichthyofauna of Eravikulam National Park with notes on trout culture in Rajamalai, Munnar, Kerala. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 96(2): 199-202. Raju Thomas, K., C.R. Biju, C.R. Ajithkumar & M. John George (2000a): Fishes of Chimmony and Peechi- Vazhani Wildlife Sanctuaries, Thrissur district, Kerala .J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 97(2): 289-292. Raju Thomas, K., C.R. Biju. & M. John George (2000b): Fish fauna of Idukki and Neyyar Wildlife Sanctuaries, southern Kerala, India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 97(3): 443-446. Raj, S.B. (1941): A new genus of Schizothoracine fishes from Travancore, South India. Rec. Ind. Mus. 43: 209- 214. Rema Devi, K. & T.J. Indra (1984): Noemacheilus pam bare ns is, anew loach (Cyprinoidei: Balitoridae: Noemacheilinae) from Western Ghats, Idukki, Kerala. Rec. zool. Surv. India 94 (2&4): 207-210. Rema Devi, K. & A. G. K. Menon (1992): Horadandia atukorali brittani, a new subspecies of Rasborinae (Pisces: Cyprinidae) from Kerala, South India. Trop. Fish Hobbyist 65: 175-176. Rita, S.D., P. Banerescu & T.T. Nalbant (1978): Oreonectes ( Indoreonectes ) keralensis , a new subgenus and species of loach from Kerala, India (Pisces: Cobitidae). Trav. Mus. Hist. Nat. 19: 185- 188. Silas, E.G. ( 1 950): On a collection of fish from Travancore. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 48: 792-797. Silas, E.G. (1951): On a collection of fishes from the Anamalai and Nelliampathi hill ranges (Western Ghats) with notes on its zoogeographical significance. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 49: 670-681. Silas, E.G. (1952): Fishes from the High Ranges of Travancore. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 50: 323-330. Silas, E.G. (1954): Garra hughi, anew Cyprinidfish from the Western Ghats, Peninsular India, with notes on its bionomics. Rec. Ind. Mus. 52: 1-14. Silas, E.G. (1958): Studies on the Cyprinid fishes of the genus Chela Hamilton. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 55(1): 54-99. Talwar, P.K. & A.G. Jhingran (1991): Inland fishes of India and adjacent countries. Oxford & IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi. Zacharias, V. J., A.K. Bharadwaj & PC. Jacob (1996): Fish fauna of Periyar Tiger Reserve. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 93 (1): 39-43. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 53 CHARACTERISTICS AND SIGNIFICANCE OF SONG IN FEMALE ORIENTAL MAGPIE-ROBIN, COPSYCHUS SA ULARIS 1 Anil Kumar2’ 3 and Dinesh Bhatt2 ( With one text-figure) Key words: Copsychus saularis, song of female, communication, territorial defence, spectrograms Singing behaviour of the female Oriental magpie-robin, Copsychus saularis was studied. The female sings occasionally for a short period in the presence of the male. The song consists of phrases made up of different elements. The minimum, maximum and range of frequencies were found to be 2.42 ±0.03, 5.03 ±0.08 and 2.6 1 ±0.02 kHz, respectively while the duration of the phrases were 1.38 ±0.02 sec, followed by an interval of 1 .49 ±0.03 sec. It appears that the female magpie-robin’s song helps to stimulate the male Introduction Bird song performs a variety of functions (Ali 1996). In most passerine species, song is the characteristic of the male and is used for territorial defence through advertisement and mate acquisition (Cooney and Cockburn 1995, Bhatt et al. 2000). Besides these two functions, birds also use the song to synchronize breeding behaviour, mate guarding, mate recognition, parent-offspring recognition and neighbour- stranger discrimination (Weary et al. 1992, Lambrechts and Dhondt 1995). The song in the female has also been studied in many passerine species. In some species it is rare, while in others the females normally sing duets with males (Ridgely and Tudor 1989). The major functions of the song of the female include territorial defence, prevention of polygyny and intra-pair communication (Flood 1990). In the present study, an attempt has been made to investigate physical characteristics and functional significance of the song in the female Oriental magpie-robin, Copsychus saularis. 'Accepted November, 2001 department of Zoology and Environmental Science, Gurukul Kangri University, Haridwar 249 404, Uttaranchal, India. ■Present address: Wildlife Institute of India, Post Box No. 1 8, Chandrabani, Dehra Dun 248 00 1 , Uttaranchal, India. to sing. Methodology The Oriental magpie-robin breeds during March to August in northern India (Ali 1996, Roberts 1992, Kumar 1999). Songs of five females were recorded from March 1997 to August 1998, at Haridwar (29° 55’ N, 78° 8’ E), using a JVC Zoom MZ-500 unidirectional microphone and a SONY CFS 1030S tape recorder. Most signals were recorded at a distance of 2-5 m. Pre- and post-signalling behaviour and circumstances in which signalling occur were observed to infer the meaning of the song. After editing, cuts of high quality recordings (a few seconds duration) were used for physical analysis (charac- teristics based on frequency and duration). In the present study, we used minimum frequency, maximum frequency, range of frequencies, duration of phrases and interval between phrases, to define the physical characteristics of the songs. The analysis was made with the help of Scientific 25 MHz Digital Storage Oscilloscope HM205-3, interfaced with a PC (Pentium) and signal analyzer software SP 91 (Bhatt et al. 2000). Spectrograms were generated with the help of DSP Sonagraph™ 5500 machine using SIGNAL™, a software package for sound generation and analysis. 54 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 SONG IN FEMALE ORIENTAL MAGPIE-ROBIN Results The female Oriental magpie-robin occasionally sings a short, low amplitude song in the presence of the male. In most cases (n=7), they were observed singing alone. However, male and female were once seen singing a duet at a distance of about 25 cm. The female song consists of phrases, either similar (repetition of same phrase) or dissimilar in structure as observed in male birds. Minimum, maximum and range of frequencies were found to be 2.42 ±0.03, 5.03 ±0.08 and 2.61 ±0.02 kHz respectively, while the duration of phrases was 1.38 ±0.02 sec followed by an 1.49±0.03 sec interval (Fig. 1). Since the female sings rarely, only a few song samples could be recorded and the analysis is restricted to a few select phrases. Analysis of the data reveals that the female uses almost the same frequency pattern as the male birds do (Table 1). Interestingly, the female started singing before the male. Thus, it appears that in C. saularis , onset of breeding is indicated by female song. However, in some males (n=4), the singing was initiated on listening to the song of neighbouring males. In two cases, the female was found singing at the time of the second brood, just before the mating. It appears that the function of the female song in magpie-robin is to stimulate the male for (i) initiation of breeding activities (i.e. formation of breeding territory), and (ii) courtship. Discussion Our results reveal that the female Copsychus saularis sings rarely, and uses almost same frequencies as male birds. However, the maximum frequency, range of frequencies and relative amplitude was found to be higher in males (Table 1 ). The female rarely sings. It seems that the biological significance of the female’s song is restricted to initiating the males to sing, while in males the song is common during breeding and is used for territorial defence and mate acquisition (Bhatt et al. 2000). In many species of birds and mammals, both the sexes live together throughout the year but courtship takes place when a female gives signs of readiness in the form of olfactory/vocal/ visual cue(s). In the magpie-robin group, females normally use singing for this purpose. In the polygynous redwinged blackbird-, Agelaius phoeniceus of North America, Beletsky (1983) Table 1 COMPARATIVE ACCOUNT OF THE PHYSICAL AND ASSOCIATED CHARACTERISTICS OF SONG OF MALE AND FEMALE, ORIENTAL MAGPIE-ROBIN COPSYCHUS SAULARIS S. No. Characteristics Female Male (Bhatt etal. 2000) 1. Number of individuals (N), studied 5 14 2. Number of samples (n), taken for statistical analysis (mean ±SE) 12 84 3. Minimum frequency (kHz) 2.42 ±0.03 2.39 ±0.04 4. Maximum frequency (kHz) 5.03 ±0.08 5.41 ±0.07 5. P.ange of frequency (kHz) 2.61 ±0.02 3.19 ±0. 1 1 6. Duration of phrases (sec) 1.38 ±0.02 1.52 ±0.05 7. Interval between phrases (sec) 1.49 ±0.03 1.09 ±0.04 8. Relative amplitude Low High 9. Use of song Rare Common in breeding season 10. Conspecific context Always observed in the presence of male Irrespective of the presence / absence of female 11. Biological function Probably initiate the males to sing For territory advertisement and mate acquisition JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 55 SONG IN FEMALE ORIENTAL MAGPIE-ROBIN i — — i — 1 ”i r h. to U) ^ « (ZHM) Aouanbajj "« - - — b o CM r- 56 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR 2002 Fig. 1: Spectrogram of the song of the female Oriental magpie-robin Copsychus saularis showing the different physical characteristics, namely maximum frequency, minimum frequency, range of frequency, duration of phrases and interval between phrases. SONG IN FEMALE ORIENTAL MAGPIE-ROBIN found two types of female song with varied functions. These songs probably help in communication between the mated pair and are aggressive signals. As in the Oriental magpie- robin, the song of the female European robin, Erithacus rubecula is shorter and simpler than the male song (Lack 1946). Female white- crowned sparrow, Zonotrichia leucophrys also produce a song, which is structurally similar to that of the male, but usually shorter in duration (Baptista et al. 1993). In the European robin, Erithacus rubecula the female song is clearly related to the winter territorial behaviour (Hoelzel 1986), while in Oriental magpie-robin the female generally does not exhibit territorial behaviour. However, during breeding if a predator appears in the territory, the female helps the male to chase it away, both producing threat calls. The female was never observed chasing conspecifics during this study. In Northern cardinals, Richrnondena cardinalis, Ritchison (1986) found that females sang during a particular phase of the breeding cycle, just before nesting, and there was no evidence from field observations or playback experiments that female song helped to establish or defend territory, just as in the Oriental magpie-robin. Refer Ali, S. (1996): The Book of Indian Birds, 12"' edition. Bombay Natural History Society, Mumbai. Baptista, L.F., P. W. Trail, B.B. DeWolfe & M.L Morton (1993): Singing and its functions in female white- crowned sparrows. Anim. Behav. 46: 51 1-524. Beletsky, L.D. (1983): Aggressive and pair bond maintenance songs of female red-winged blackbirds (Agelaius phoeniceus). Z. Tierpsychol. 62: 47-54. Bhatt, D., A. Kumar, Y. Singh & R.B. Payne (2000): Territorial songs and calls in oriental magpie-robin, Copsychus saularis. Curr. Sci. 78(6): 722-728. Cooney, R. & A. Cockburn (1995): Territorial defence is the major function of female song in the superb fairy-wren ( Malurus cyaneus). Anim. Behav. 49: 1635-1647. Flood, N.J. (1990): Aspects of the breeding biology of Audubon’s oriole. J. Field Ornithol. 61: 290-302. Hoelzel, A.R. (1986): Song characteristics and response The song of the Northern cardinal seemed to stimulate the males to join in and sing as well. It is suggested that female song in cardinals might function in pair bonding or synchronising reproductive physiology (Ritchison 1986, Moller 1991). The present study indicates that the magpie-robin is a good model to study the functional significance of song of female birds. It provides basic information on the song of the female magpie-robin. A detailed study is required to know the repertoire of female song and its functional significance. Acknowledgments We thank Dr. A.K. Chopra, Head, Dept, of Zoology and Environmental Sciences, Gurukul Kangri University, Haridwar, for facilities, Dr. Sandra L. L. Gaunt and Dr. Hitesh Khanna, Department of Zoology, Ohio State University, USA for the preparation of spectrograms. We are thankful to Dr. Q.H. Baqri, Officer-in-Charge, Desert Regional Station, Zoological Survey of India, Jodhpur, for his valuable comments. Financial assistance from DST (Govt, of India) is also gratefully acknowledged. N C E S to playback of male and female robins, Erithacus rubecula. Ibis 128: 115-127. Kumar, A. (1999): Characteristics and significance of calls, songs and visual displays in two avian species viz. Copsychus saularis and Pycnonotus cafer. Ph.D. thesis. Gurukul Kangri University, Haridwar. Lack, D. ( 1 946): The life of the Robin. London: Witherby. Lambrechts, M.M. & A. A. Dhondt ( 1 995): Individuals voice discrimination in birds. In: Current Ornithology (Ed.: Power, D.M.). Vol. 12: 115-139, Plenum Press, New York. Moller, A.P. (1991): Why mated songbirds sing so much, mate guarding and male announcement of mate fertility status. Amer. Nat. 138: 994-1014. Ridgely, R.S. & G. Tudor (1989): The Birds of South America, Vol. /: University of Texas Press, Austin, Texas. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY 99(1), APR. 2002 57 SONG IN FEMALE ORIENTAL MAGPIE-ROBIN Ritchison, G. (1986): The singing behaviour of female northern cardinals. Condor 88: 156-159. Roberts, T.J. (1992): The Birds of Pakistan (Vol. 2), Passeriformes: Pittas to Buntings. Oxford University Press, Karachi, Pakistan. Weary, D.M., R.E. Lemon & S. Perrault (1992): Song repertoire do not hinder neighbour-stranger discrimination. Behav. Ecol. Socibiol. 31: 441-447. 58 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 PSYCHOPHILY AND EVOLUTIONARY CONSIDERATIONS OF CADABA FRUTICOSA L. (CAPPARACEAE)1 J.S.R. Aluri and S.P. Rao2 Key words: Cadaba fruticosa , androgynophore, nectarial tube, Colotis eucharis, C. danae, psychophily, co-evolution Cadaba fruticosa is a perennial shrub, which flowers almost round the year. Floral characters, such as the opening of the flower during early hours of the day, green colour of the flower, a nectarial tube with good amount of nectar, and this tube along with the androgynophore and petals serving as landing place for the probing flower visitors, conform to psychophily. C. fruticosa breeds through geitonogamy and xenogamy only, and the pollination is effected exclusively by pierid butterflies, namely Colotis eucharis, C. danae and Anaphaeis aurota. This study concludes that Cadaba and Colotis have bound to affect both. Introduction Certain plant species possess highly specialized floral forms and structures associated with particular species of insect pollinators. Specialization nearly always tends towards enabling the plant to adapt to a limited range of pollinating insects. The specialized forms of plants develop through morphological adaptations over a period of time. The specialized floral forms adapted to butterfly-pollination have been scantily reported in literature (Cruden and Hermann-Parker 1979, Dronamraju 1960, Dronamraju and Spurway 1960, Hawkswood 1985, Ilse and Vaidya 1956, Jennerston 1984, Khare 1975, Levin 1972, Reddi and Meerabai 1984). These workers showed that the butterflies could serve as efficient pollinators, because the floral forms are specialized for foraging exclusively by them. In the present study, it was found that an adaptive relationship existed between the flowers of Cadaba fruticosa and the pierid butterflies i.e. both partners exhibit interdependency. Structural and functional aspects of C. fruticosa 'Accepted November, 2001 department of Environmental Sciences, Andhra University, Visakhapatnam 530 003, Andhra Pradesh, India. co-evolved and any disturbance in the habitat is flower and the foraging details of pierid butterflies are presented and discussed from the perspective of psychophily and co-evolution. Material and Methods Cadaba fruticosa plants growing wild near the Indira Gandhi Zoological Park at Visakhapatnam (17° 42' N and 82° 18' E) were observed periodically. The phenology of their flowering was recorded. To study the flower production and life of an inflorescence, the opening of flowers of 20 marked inflorescences were recorded every day. Floral events, such as flower opening and anther dehiscence were recorded through continuous observation. The nectar, accumulated in flowers covered with butter paper bags, was quantified using graduated micropipettes. Its sugar concentration and composition were determined by a refractometer and paper chromatography respectively. Presence of proteins and amino acids was determined by spot tests as per Baker and Baker ( 1 973) Method. Number of pollen grains per anther, pollen viability, stigma receptivity and mode of reproduction, natural fruit set, seed set and fecundity were determined as per Aluri and Reddi (1994) and Aluri et al. (1998). butterflies of the Indian region (Wynter-Blyth 1957) was used JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 59 PSYCH0PH1LY AND EVOLUTION OF CAD ABA FRUTICOSA L. to identify butterflies captured at flowers of C. fruticosa. The number of foraging visits made in a single foraging bout was recorded for each butterfly species, and number of visits per minute were counted using a stopwatch. The relative frequency of visits of different butterfly species was determined through censuses on different days at different plants. The behaviour of butterflies at the flowers was also noted carefully. The floral characters and foraging behaviour of butterflies were thoroughly examined for their adaptive relationship. Results Flowering Phenology: It is a perennial shrub which flowers almost round the year. Flowering of different conspecific individuals is largely synchronous during the rainy season from June to September, and asynchronous during the rest of the year. Intense flowering occurs during the rainy season. The inflorescence is a fascicle with solitary and axillary flowers, and bears an average of 9 flowers that mature over 14-30 (x = 22) days. The mature flower buds that arise from the axial point do not all mature on the same day. Flower Morphology: Flowers pedicellate, oriented horizontally. Thalamus elongated into a slender structure on which floral parts occur at different levels. Androphore is a part of the thalamus between the perianth and the stamens, whereas gynophore is present between the stamens and the gynaecium. The entire structure is known as an androgynophore. Additionally, there is a nectar-secreting tubular structure separated from the base of the androgynophore. Four free sepals arranged in two whorls of two each (two median sepals in the outer whorl and two inner sepals transverse). Four free, clawed petals arranged in one whorl alternate with the four stamens. Gynaecium raised up on a prominent gynophore, bicarpellary, syncarpous, unilocular, with an average of 1 1 ovules arranged on the parietal placentation. Floral Events: Flowers begin to open slowly from 0130 hrs and proceed to unfold the sexual organs in about 2!4 hours. The flowers with exposed sex organs are available from 0345 hrs onwards on sunny days and an hour later on cloudy and rainy days. Anther dehiscence occurs after sunrise at 0730 hrs in flowers under sunshine, and an hour later in flowers which are in shade. The pollen grains are spheroidal with psilate exine, separable into two size classes, 28 pm and 19.4 pm. Their number per anther ranged from 7,870-8,240 (x - 8,080). In vivo tests showed that the pollen grains remain viable for 27 hours after anther dehiscence; the grains stored for 1 5 hours have 80% fruit set. Pollen- ovule ratio is 3000:1. In the early flower-life, the style and stigma are curving while the dehisced anthers stand erect. Gradually, the stigma uncurves, stands erect and attains equal height with the stamens at 1100 hrs and remains so till the flower withers. In vivo tests showed that the stigma receptivity lasts for 89 hours. The nectar secreting tubular structure secretes 5 pi of nectar during the life of the flower. The sugar concentration of the nectar varied from 18 to 26%. It contained three common sugars — sucrose, glucose and fructose, in that order of dominance. The nectar also contained amino acids with a histidine score of 5.5 and proteins. The stamens dropped off after 36 hours, sepals and petals after another 36 hours. Then the stigma gradually withered and dropped off 20 hours later. The nectar harbouring tubular structure remained throughout fruit formation and fell off subsequently. Breeding behaviour: Hand-pollination tests for the modes of breeding showed that the plant does not breed through autogamy but through geitonogamy and xenogamy; geitonogamy is less successful than xenogamy (Table 1). The fruiting success rate in open- pollinated flowers is limited, compared to the success rate of hand-pollinated flowers (Table 2). 60 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 PSYCHOPHILYAND EVOLUTION OF CAD ABA FRUTICOSA L. Table 1 RESULTS OF BREEDING EXPERIMENTS FOR CADABA FRUTICOSA Treatment No. of flowers pollinated No. of flowers set fruit No. of ovules set seed Fruit set (%) Seed set (%) Fecundity (%) Autogamy 25 0 0 0 0 0 Geitonogamy 25 21 126 84 54 46 Xenogamy 25 23 207 92 82 75 Table 2 NATURAL FRUIT, SEED AND FECUNDITY RATES IN CADABA FRUTICOSA Study area No. of flowers observed Fruit set (%) Seed set Fecundity (%) (%) ' Outside Zoo Park 145 14 76 16 Inside Zoo Park 189 5 58 3 Interiors of Zoo Park 98 15 93 8 Table 3 PERCENTAGE OF BUTTERFLY SPECIES VISITS TO CD ABA FRUTICOSA FLOWERS Date of observation Mean temp. Mean relative humidity Colotis Colotis Anaphaeis eucharis danae aurota Oct. 1, 1999 28.3 67 70 20 10 Nov. 18, 1999 25.6 74 73 13 14 Nov. 30, 1999 25.2 83 91 7 2 Dec. 11, 1999 24.3 68 90 8 2 Apr. 9,2000 25.6 83 49 19 32 Table 4 PROBOSCIS LENGTH OF DIFFERENT BUTTERFLY SPECIES VERSUS NECTARIAL TUBE LENGTH OF CADABA FRUTICOSA Butterfly species No. of samples Mean (mm) Nectarial tube length (mm) Colotis eucharis 5 17 C. danae 5 17 10 Anaphaeis aurota 5 20 Flower-visitors and pollination: The pierid butterflies Colotis eucharis, C. danae and Anaphaeis aurota are the exclusive foragers on Cadaba fruticosa. They foraged for nectar from 0630-1500 hrs, with intense activity between 0900 and 1200 hrs. Of these, Colotis eucharis is the most frequent and regular forager and made an outstanding percentage of visits during the study period. C. danae came second, and made more visits than A. aurota (Table 3). Colotis eucharis and C. danae, with an average proboscis length of 17 mm each and A. aurota with an average proboscis length of 20 mm probed and succeeded in obtaining the nectar from the nectarial tube (Table 4). To obtain the nectar, butterflies land on the nectarial tube itself or the androgynophore or petals. In this case, they landed mostly on the androgynophore. Contact between anthers and stigma, and the wings of foraging butterflies takes place if they use the androgynophore or nectarial tube; even this contact is achieved only when the gynaecium is erect and stands parallel to the level of the anthers. No such contact is made if the butterflies land on the petals. Examination of the 119 foraging visits of butterflies to the 20 open flowers indicated that wing contact with the anthers and stigma was made in only 66 and 47 visits respectively, while in 6 visits no contact was made with either. The butterflies visited an average of 2-4 flowers per foraging bout. C. eucharis foraged more flowers per minute compared to C. danae and A. aurota (Table 5). All three butterfly species foraged flowers of different conspecific plants very frequently. Only those visits where there was contact between the stigma and anthers resulted in pollination. Since the plant lacks autogamy, such visits are required to bring about either geitonogamy or xenogamy. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 61 PSYCHOPHILYAND EVOLUTION OFCADABA FRUTICOSA L. Table 5 TIME SPENT BY THE BUTTERFLIES AT THE FLOWERS OF CADABA FRUTICOSA Butterfly species No. of flowers visited in a single bout (x) No. of visits per minute (x) Average time spent per flower (sec) Colotis eucharis 4.0 6.5 1.2 C. danae 2.0 4.6 2.0 Anaphaeis aurota 2.3 3.3 3.1 Discussion Butterfly pollination has been reported in Rhianthus hirsutus (McLean and Cook 1956), Asclepias syriaca (Percival 1965), Phlox species (Grant and Grant 1965, Levin and Berube 1972), Dianthus and Gymnadenia (Proctor and Yeo 1972), Anguria (Gilbert 1975), Platanthera ciliaris (Smith and Snow 1976), Caesalpinia pulcherrima (Cruden and Hermann-Parker 1979), Cnidoscolus urens (Bawa et al. 1 983) and Tridax procumbens (Balasubramanian 1989). In Cadaba fruticosa also, floral characters such as opening of the flower during daytime, production of a good amount of nectar, a separate nectar- hosting tubular structure, and a nectarial tube, androgynophore and petals providing a platform for landing, all conform to psychophilous pollination syndrome sens u Meeuse and Morris (1984). C. fruticosa exhibits weak protandry and the anthers are viable for a short period when compared to the lengthy duration of stigma receptivity. This floral sexual behaviour facilitates autogamy for a brief period; but hand pollination tests showed the absence of autogamy. Further, the hand pollination tests performed for geitonogamy and xenogamy showed that the plant is capable of breeding through these two modes of reproduction, xenogamy being more successful. The study of breeding behaviour reveals that pollen flow between flowers of the same or conspecific plants is imperative for geitono- or xenogamous pollination. The flowers of C. fruticosa with psychophilous characters have been observed to be foraged and pollinated exclusively by three pierid butterfly species, namely Colotis eucharis , C. danae and Anaphaeis aurota. The foraging behaviour, mobility rate and foraging frequency of these three butterflies were seen to effect geitono- and xenogamous pollination, and on this basis, these butterflies may be treated as exclusive pollinators. However, C. eucharis with its greater foraging frequency is a dominant pollinator. The nectarial tube of the flower is perfectly tailored to the length of the butterfly’s proboscis, enabling C. eucharis to withdraw the nectar easily while excluding other flower-visitors. Although the flower is exclusively suited for butterfly pollination, butterflies do not effect pollination in each visit. Of the total visits, only 40% effect pollination, 55% carry pollen and 5% simply deplete nectar. The butterflies contact the stigma and anthers with their wings only, and this contact is directly related to the place of landing on the nectarial tube, androgynophore and petals, and also to the relative position between them. The butterflies effect pollination or carry pollen only if they use either the nectarial tube or the androgynophore. Even this pollination is effected only when the gynaecium is erect and stands parallel to the level of the anthers. These limitations, and the observed foraging frequency of butterflies, are bourrd to influence natural reproductive success. The natural fruit set, seed set and fecundity rates recorded in the study are in tune with the above observations. Nevertheless, and whatever be the limitations, C. fruticosa is an excellent example of psychophilous pollination syndrome. C. fruticosa flowers almost throughout the year and the butterflies forage on this plant all through the year for their nectar requirement, while occasionally foraging on associated plant species such as Tridax procumbens , Justicia 62 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 PSYCHOPHILY AND EVOLUTION OF CAD ABA FRUTICOSA L. procumbens , Borreria hispida and Lantana camara, which flower largely in the rainy season. The study clearly indicates that Cadaba fruticosa is the adult’s principal nectar host plant. Further, it is found that the two Colotis butterflies oviposit on the leaves and flower buds of C. fruticosa and their larvae feed on the same leaves. On the other hand, Anaphaeis aurota does the same on Capparis spinosa , which occurs in the same study area. Therefore, the study considers the plant Cadaba and the pierid butterflies belonging to Refer Aluri, J.S.R., Reddi, C.S. & K. Rama Das (1998): Temporal dioecism and pollination by wasps and bees in Allophylus serratus (Roxb.) Radik. (Sapindaceae). PI. Sp. Biol. 13: 1-5. Aluri, J.S.R. & C.S. Reddi (1994): Pollination ecology and mating system of the weedy mint Leonotis nepetaefolia R. Br. in India. Proc. Indian natn. Sci. Acad. B60: 255- 268. Baker, H.G. & I. Baker (1973): Some antheco logical aspects of the evolution of nectar producing flowers, particularly amino acid production in nectar. In: Taxonomy and Ecology (Ed.: Heywood, V.H.). Academic Press, London. Pp. 243-264. Balasubramanian, M.V. (1989): Studies on the ecology of butterfly pollination in South India. Ann. Entomol. 7:31-41. Bawa, K.S., C.J. Webb & A.F. Tuttle (1983): The adaptive significance of monoecism in Cnidoscolus urens (Euphorbiaceae). Bot. J. Linn. Soc. 85: 213-223. Cruden, R.W. & S.M. Hermann-Parker (1979): Butterfly pollination of Caesalpinia pulcherrima with observations on psychophilous syndrome. J. Ecol. 67: 155-168. Dronamraju, K.R. (1960): Selective visits of butterflies to flowers: A possible factor in sympatric speciation. Nature 186: 178. Dronamraju, K.R. & H. Spurway (1960): Constancy to horticultural varieties shown by butterflies and its possible evolutionary significance. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 57: 1-8. Gilbert, L.E. (1975): Ecological consequences of a coevolved mutualism between butterflies and plants. In: Coevolution of animals and plants (Eds.: Gilbert, L.E. & PH. Raven). University of Texas Press, Austin. Pp. 210-240. Grant, V. & K. A. Grant ( 1 965): Flower pollination in the Phlox family. Columbia University Press, New York. Colotis as a co-evolved system. The A. aurota - C. fruticosa system appears to be a one sided adaptation, as the plant allows only butterflies of A. aurota to feed on its nectar and pollinate it, and not the larvae. The C. fruticosa-Colotis relationship appears to be a specialized system and any disturbance in the habitat is bound to affect the existence of both. It is imperative to protect the habitats where these two partners occur, in order to ensure their perpetuation. ENCES Pp. 248. Hawkswood, T.J. (1985): The role of butterflies as pollinators of Acacia bidwillii Benth. (Mimosidae) at Townsville, Northern Queensland (Australia). Aust. J. Bot. 33: 167-174. Ilse, D. & V.G. Vaidya (1956): Spontaneous feeding response to colours in Papilio demoleus. Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. 43: 23-31. Jennerston, O. (1984): Flower visitation and pollination efficiency by some north European butterflies. Oecologia (Berl.) 68: 80-89. Khare, V.S. (1975): Some observations on the pollination of certain Asteraceae. Geobios 24: 115-117. Levin, D.A. (1972): The adaptedness of corolla colour variants in experimental and natural populations of Phlox dr ummondi. Amer. Nat. 106: 57-70. Levin, D.A. & D.E. Berube (1972): Phlox and Colias: The efficiency of a pollination system. Evolution 6: 242- 250. McLean, R.C. & W.R.I. Cook (1956): Textbook of Theoretical Botany, Vol. II. Longmans Green & Co., London. Pp. 1345. Meeuse, B. & S. Morris (1984): The Sex Life of Flowers. Facts on File, New York. Pp. 147. Percival, M. (1965): Floral biology. Pergamon Press, Oxford, London. Pp. 152. Proctor, M. & P. Yeo (1 972): The Pollination of Flowers. Taplinger Publishing Co., New York. Pp. 458. Reddi, C.S. & G. Meerabai (1984): Butterflies and pollination biology. Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. 93: 391 - 396. Smith, G.R. & G.E. Snow (1976): Pollination ecology of Platanthera ( Hebeneraia ) ciliaris and P. blephariglottis (Orchidaceae). Bot. Gaz. 137: 133-140. Wynter-Blyth, M.A. (1957): Butterflies of the Indian Region. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay. Pp. 505. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 63 A DICHOTOMOUS KEY FOR FIELD IDENTIFICATION OF THE ORDERS OF INDIAN DIPLOPODA1 Kubra Bano2 ( With ten text-figures) Key words: Taxonomy, Diplopoda, Identification, Dichotomous Key, Orders, Families This paper is intended as a guide for identification of Indian diplopods, at least to their Orders. The Indian diplopod fauna, so far known, consists of 11 orders, 20 families, and 100-120 genera, with approximately 500 species. Many more might be unlisted because of lack of expertise. A key for identification has been provided. Introduction Diplopods are some of the most frequent fauna of Tropical, Subtropical, Temperate Forest floors and other ecosystems. Despite their frequent occurrence, they have evinced very little interest among zoologists, even less among systematists, especially in India. They are the most neglected group compared to the Insecta and Arachnida, and are scarcely studied, perhaps due to lack of expertise. Hoffman (1979) reported Diplopoda of the world, comprising 10,000 species under 15 orders, 115 families and over 1,700 genera. Studies on Indian diplopods date back to the pre- independence era, and since then have not been updated. Attems (1936) reported 290 species from Indian Territory. Carl (1941) added 15 species. In the last 3 decades, a few sporadic reports that appeared were those of Demange (1961, 1969, 1970, 1975, 1977a, b, 1983 and 1989), Jeekel (1968 and 1980), Hoffinan (1977), Hoffman and Burkhalter (1978), Golovatch (1983, 1992 and 1993), and Golovatch and Martens (1996). The Indian diplopod fauna known today consists of 1 1 orders, 20 families and about 100-120 genera with around 500 'Accepted April, 2000 department of Zoology, University of Agricultural Sciences, Bangalore 560 065, Karnataka, India. species. A note on their general characters, collection and preservation has already been published elsewhere (Bano 1999). During the last 3 years, the author, while working on the systematics of Indian diplopod families, Harpagophoridae and Paradoxosomatidae felt the need to update the key, and has now attempted to bring out a concise and illustrated key for their identification. A brief account of the characters and distribution is added. Class Diplopoda Characters: Diplopods are commonly called millipedes, meaning ‘thousand legs’, although no individual of this group bears a thousand legs, their many legs and wave-like motion has given them the name millipede. Diplopods are defined as many-segmented, many-legged, terrestrial, tracheate, mandibulate, antennate, progoneate, oviparous and anamorphic arthropods. They are long, cylindrical or sub-cylindrical, excepting a few dorsoventrally flattened forms (Polydesmida and Chodeumatida). Body measures from 2.0 mm (Polyxenida) up to 200 mm in length (Spirostreptida, Spirobolida and Julida). The outer body covering is a hard chitinous, shiny and beautifully coloured exoskeleton, except in 64 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 DICHOTOMOUS KEY FOR FIELD IDENTIFICA TION OF INDIAN DIPLOPODA Polyxenida. The body consists of an anterior head capsule, bearing one pair of 8-jointed antennae. Just behind the antennae, at the sides or more rarely on the middle of the forehead, are a group of simple eyes or ocelli. Ocelli may be numerous or reduced to 5, 3 or even 1 on each side, or completely absent as in the case of Polydesmida, Siphonophorida and in some cave-dwelling forms. Between the eyes and the antennae is a small sensory pit. The frontal margin of the head is the labrum or the clypeus, which is notched at the middle, usually bearing three teeth. Underneath are a pair of mandibles carrying powerful cutting edges, at the base of which are placed a pair of maxillae which are fused, forming a plate called gnathochilarium acting as a labium, or floor of the buccal cavity. Diplopoda is unique among arthropods in possessing a gnathochilarium. The head is followed by a long, segmented trunk. The segment immediate to the head capsule is the colium, large, devoid of legs and with paired stemites. Following this are three segments bearing three pairs of legs. The remaining body segments are made up of two somites each (diplosomite), the anterior prozonite and the posterior metazonite. The diplosomites carry two pairs of legs. The last segment lacks legs and is called the telson or the pygidium. The telson ends in a long or short, sharp or blunt spine, bent upward, or downward, or straight. Most of the millipedes are equipped with defence glands, the repugnatorial glands or the ozadenes, opening through ozopores located laterally on the metazonites and distributed on most of the body segments, except a few anterior and tail segments. The secretions of these glands are odoriferous, highly volatile compounds of hydrogen cyanide, phenols, iodides, terpenoids, quinones and aldehydes, which act as a deterrent to other animals. All the diplopods are progoneate; the genital ducts of both sexes open on ring iii. In males of spirostreptids, spirobolids, julids stemmiulids and polyzonids, the paired deferent canals open into a median penis or paired penes behind the second pair of legs. In glomerids, chordeumatids and polydesmids, the deferent canals perforate the coxae of the second pair of legs. In females of all orders, each oviduct opens separately into a vulva or cyphopod behind the second pair of legs. Each vulva consists of a bivalve bursa with an anterior opening covered by an operculum. Within the bursa is the apodermatic tube terminating with one or two ampullae, which function as seminal receptacles or spermathecae. Each vulva lies in a sac sunk into the lumen of the ring behind the second pair of legs. The sac and the vulva are everted during copulation. Distribution: Diplopods are abundant in warm humid tropics and all temperate broad leaf forest regions of the world (Hoffman 1990). They occur from the snow line down to sea level, and some are cave and sand dune dwellers. They are primarily inhabitants of forest floors and the relic fauna is found to have established in plains, cultivated lands, grasslands, and gardens. Their distribution is contiguous; they are found in large aggregates, small numbers or in singles, crawling aimlessly on the verges of roads or in open fields and plain lands, or lying spirally coiled under litter or mineral soil. They are active on the surface during the monsoon after one or two showers (April to June and October to December). Systematic and faunistic knowledge of Indian Diplopoda is poor, archaic and incomplete. The fauna reported so far is chiefly from the northern Himalayan regions and southern Peninsula. The majority of the Himalayan fauna is localized in distribution, restricted to certain altitudes, and very few species are widespread (Golovatch and Martens 1996). Among the diplopods, worldwide distribution is very rare. According to Attems (1936), the Indian diplopod fauna is largely endemic, and bears a close relationship to the JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 65 DICHOTOMOUS KEY FOR FIELD IDENTIFICA TION OF INDIAN DIPLOPODA African, and to a certain extent to the Australian fauna. But the majority of the fauna is endemic and localized. Among the Harpagophoridae, the genus Gonoplectus is specially restricted to the northern Himalayan region, whereas the other genera such as Harpurostreptus , Carlogonus, Gnomognathus , Organognathus, Ktenostreptus and Phyllogonostreptus are largely of Peninsular India. Sphaerotherids are reported from both the regions, but are restricted to high altitudes. The millipedes of the Orders Chordeumatida, Julida and the genera of Family Furhamonodesmidae, Order Polydesmida, are reported only from Himalayan ranges, whereas the other three families of Polydesmida are reported from both the regions. Thus, diplopods exhibit biogeographic affinities. Dichotomous icey for the Orders of Class Diplopoda 1. Body wall membranous without sclerotisation. Body soft, consists of 1 1 segments with 13 pairs of legs, covered with tufts or clusters of setae or bristles. Males without copulatory organs (gonopods). Minute animals of 2-3 mm length. Found in dry places. Commonly called ‘bristly’ millipedes (Fig. 1) Polyxenida. Family: Polyxenidae ( 1 species reported from Kashmir, 1 species reported from South India) — Body wall sclerotised. Body hard, composed of 13 or more segments. Setae, if present, always single and simple, never in tufts or clusters. Adults with 1 7 or more pairs of legs. Tarsal claw simple and acute. At least one pair of legs modified into copulatory organs (gonopods) in males 2 2. Dorsal surface of body slightly convex. Adults with 13 or 22 segments. Segmental sclerites loosely attached (pentazoneate, Fig. 2a). No plural keels. Last pair of legs modified into copulatory organs 3 — Body flat or sub-cylindrical. Adults with 19 or more segments. Segmental sclerites completely fused to form a tight ring (monozoneate, Figs 2b, 2c and 2d) or attached with membranous joints. Paired legs on 7th segment modified into gonopods in males 5 3 . Body composed of 1 3 segments. Head with a row of ocelli (eyes). Animals capable of rolling into tight balls or spheres. Males stridulate by rubbing last pair of legs with sides of last tergite 4 — Body composed of 22 segments. Head without ocelli. Animals not capable of rolling into a ball or sphere, males do not stridulate Glomeridesmida Family Glomeridesmidae (2 species known from South India) 4. Animals large, up to 8 cm. Body surface smooth, grey to black in colour without any ornamentation, called ‘giant pill millipedes’ (Figs 3a and 3b) Sphaerotheriida. Families Sphaerotheriidae and Sphaeropoeidae (More than 30 species reported from India) — Animals small, up to 2 cm. The 2nd and 3rd body segments fused to form a broad plate (Fig. 3c) laterally, accommodates the lateral tip of the following terga during ball formation. Cuticle jet black, sometimes with brightly coloured spots Glomerida Family Glomeridae (3 species reported from North India) 5. Body flattened, sub-cylindrical, with 19 segments. Segmental sclerites fused into a single solid ring, usually without traces of sutures (Fig. 2b). Ocelli always missing. Gonopod formed from only the anterior pair of legs of the 7th segment, posterior pair of legs absent (Fig. 4) Polydesmida Families Paradoxosomatidae, Fuhrmannodesmidae, Pyrgodesmidae and Cryptodesmidae (More than 60 species known from India) — Adults with 26 or more segments, not completely coalesced. Sterna and pleura joined by a membrane, or with a distinguishable suture (Figs 2b and 2c). Both pairs of legs of 7th segment modified into gonopods. If the gonopod is modified from a single pair of legs, the sterna not coalesced with pleuroterga, and the latter ornamented with longitudinal ridges (Figs 5b and 5c) 6 66 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 DICHOTOMOUS KEY FOR FIELD IDENTIFICA TION OF INDIAN DIPLOPODA Figs 1-4: 1. Polyxenus (Dorsal View), 2. Cross sections of segments of: a. Glomerid, b. Polydesmid, c. Chordeumatid, and d. Spirostreptid. (s: sternite; p: pleurites; t: tergites), 3. Arthrosphaera (Sphaerotheriida): a. extended animal, b. rolled into a ball, 3c. Glomeris (Glomerida) curled up, 4. Anoplodesmes tanjoricus (Polydesmida) 5. Head variable in form, usually as broad as the collum, without ocelli, anteriorly produced into a beak or rostrum. Body setose, thin and long. Large number of segments (180-190), with simple gonopods. Antennae straight, distal article enlarged. Article 5 with sensory pit (Fig. 6). Metaterga without longitudinal suture. Sterna and pleura flexibly articulated by connective tissue Siphonophorida Family Siphonophoi;idae (2 species from South India and 1 from North India) — Head smooth, rounded, without beak or rostrum. Body straight, arched or cylindrical, with 26 or more segments. Antennae without sensory pits. Sterna, pleura and terga completely coalesced into rigid cylindrical rings 7 7. Body with 26-30 segments in adults. Arched or sub-cylindrical. Sternites not coalesced (Fig 2c). Ozopores absent. Ninth and tenth JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 67 DICHOTOMOUS KEY FOR FIELD IDENTIFICATION OF INDIAN DIPLOPODA Figs 5-10: 5a. Phyllogonostreptus nigrolabiatus (Spirostreptida), 5b. Body segment (ventral view) spirobolid, c. Body segment (ventral view) Spirostreptid, 6. Head with collum (lateral view) Siphonophorid, 7. Head with a few segments (lateral view) Stemmiulid, 8. Head (front view) with clypeal suture Spirobolid, 9. Head (front view) with occipital suture Spirostreptid, 10. Gnathochilarium: a. spirobolid, b. julid, c. spirostreptid, d. cambalid, (s. stipes, 1. linguales, m. mentum, p. prementum) 68 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 DICHOTOMOUS KEY FOR FIELD IDENTIFICATION OF INDIAN DIPLOPODA pairs of legs with coxal sacs in males. Metaterga with 3+3 macrochetae and with external swellings or keels. Epiproct with spinnerets Chordeumatida Family Cleidogonidae and Kashmireumatidae (2 species known from North India) — Body with more than 30 segments, cylindrical. Metaterga without keels and macrochaetae. Epiproct without spinnerets, but with or without a simple spine 8 8. Head with one or two large ocelli on each side (Fig. 7). Pleurites and tergites fused. Metatergal suture prominent Stemmiulida Family Stemmiulidae (3 species known from South India) — Head with numerous ocelli in ocular field, or ocellaria. Ocular field triangular / reniform or oval. Segmental sclerites fused into a complete ring 9 9. Ocular field rounded or oval. No occipital suture between them, but clypeal suture evident (Fig. 8). Pleural sclerites distinct (Fig. 5b). A single pair of legs up to 5th segment. Gnathochilarium with a broad mentum separating the bases of the stipes and lingulae from each other (Fig. 10a) ... Spirobolida Families Spirobolidae, Pachybolidae and Physobolidae (More than 30 species reported from South India) — Ocular fields reniform or subtriangular, usually with a fine occipital suture between them (Fig. 9), clypeal suture absent. Pleural sclerites completely fused with the lower end of terga. No suture in between (Fig. 5c). R E F E Attems, C. (1936): Diplopoda of India. Mem. Ind. Mus. Il\ 133-323. Bano, K. (1999): General account, habitat, collection and preservation of millipedes. Bugs ‘R’ all. 13(1): (Newsletter of the Invertebrate Special Interest Group. SBSG. India). Segment 4 without legs. Gnathochilarium variable 10 10. Large millipedes up to 15-20 cm in length, with up to 90 segments (Fig. 5a). Occipital suture evident. Pleural sclerites indistinct. 4th segment without legs. Male gonopods consist of both pairs of legs of 7th segment, anterior pair more active. Stipes of the gnathochilarium always widely separated by a large median mentum (Figs 10c and lOd) Spirostreptida Families Spirostreptidae, Harpagophoridae, Cambalidae (Fig. lOd) and Adiaphorostreptidae (More than 70 species known from India) — Small cylindrical millipedes. Bases of the stipes of gnathochilarium broadly in contact medially. Small prominent sclerites, a promentum isolates the stipes from the linguales. Mentum, a transverse large plate (or 2 plates) present at the bases of the stipes (Fig. 10b) the male gonopods formed from both pairs of legs on the 7th segment Julida Family Julidae (1 species reported from North India) Acknowledgements I thank Dr. J.M. Demange, Dr. S.I. Golovatch, and Dr. R.L. Hoffman for their research papers, and other literature, which immensely facilitated my work. I am highly indebted to my husband Mr. Mushtaq Ahmed for the translation of French papers of Dr. Demange, without which it would not have been possible to produce this paper. ENCES Carl, J. (1941): Diplopoden aus Sudindien und Ceylon 2. Teil Nematophora und Juliformia. Revue Suisse de Zool. 48(22): 569-714. Demange, J.M. (1961): Materiaux pour servir a une revision des Harpagophoridae (Myriapodes- Diplopodes). Mem. Mus. Nat. Hist. Natur., Ser. A. JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 69 DICHOTOMOUS KEY FOR FIELD IDENTIFICA T10N OF INDIAN DIPLOPODA 24: 1-274. Demange, J.M. (1969): Materiaux pour servir a une revision des Harpagophoridae IV - Collection d’indetermines du Museum de Hambourg. Entom. Mitt. Zool. Museum Hambourg 4(67): 50-65. Demange, J.M. (1970): Materiaux pour servir a une revision des Harpagophoridae V. Collection du Museum de Hambourg: Deutsche Indien - Expedition 1955-1957. Ent. Mitt. Zool. Museum Hamburg. 4(68): 79-82. Demange, J.M. (1975): Materiaux pour servir a une revision des Harpagophoridae VII. Caracterisation nouvelle du genre Phyllogonostreptus Carl 1918, description d’une nouvelle espece indienne du genre et etude morphologique complementaire du type de Thyropygus (?) negotiosus Carl 1942. Revue Suisse Zool. 82(1): 157-162. Demange, J.M. (1977a): Harpagophoridae (Myriapodes, Diplopodes) de I’lnde nouveaux ou peu connus. Bull. Mus. Natn. Hist. Nat. Paris. 3e Ser. 431. Zoologie 301:231-235. Demange, J.M. (1977b): Description de trois nouvelles especes de Spirostreptoidea (Myriapodes, Diplopodes) de ITnde dont une appartenant a un genre typiquement africain. Mus. Natn. Hist. Nat. Paris. 3e Ser. 431. Zoologie 301: 237-242. Demange, J.M. (1983): Donnees nouvelles sur la famille des Harpagophoridae (Myriapoda, Diplopoda). Bull. Mus. Natn. Hist. Nat., Paris. 4e Ser. 5(2): 56 1 - 584. Demange, J.M. (1989): Sur queiques Harpagophoridae du Sud Est Asiatique et de I’lnde (Myriapoda, Diplopoda, Spirostreptidae). Bull. Mus. Natn. Hist. Nat, Paris. 4e Ser. 11: 773-781. Golovatch, S. I. (1983): Two Paradoxosomatidae from the Kashmir Himalayas (Diplopoda) - Senckenberg Biol. 63(3/4): 297-302. Golovatch, S.I. (1992): Diplopoda from the Nepal Himalayas. Some additional Paradoxosomatidae. Senckenberg Biol. 72(1/3): 183-203. Golovatch, S.I. (1993): On several new or poorly known Oriental Paradoxosomatidae (Diplopoda, Polydesmida). Arthropoda Selecta 2(1): 3-14. Golovatch, S.I. & J. Martens (1996): On the distribution and faunogenesis of Himalayan Millipede (Diplopoda). Preliminary results. Mem. Mus. Natn. Hist. Nat. 169: 163-174. In: Acta Myriapodologica (Ed.: Geoffroy, J.J., J.P. Mauries and M.N.D. Jacquemin). Hoffman, R.L. (1977): Studies on Spirostreptid millipedes XIII. Adiaphorostreptus, a remarkable new genus from India, Type of a new family in Spirostreptidae. Ent. Mitt. Zool. Mus. Hamburg. Vol. 5, No. 98, pp. 137-143. Hoffman, R.L. (1978): Studies on Spirostreptoid millipedes XIV. A new species of Gonoplectus from Thailand, with notes on the status and distribution of the genus (Spirostreptida: Harpagophoridae). J. Nat. Hist. 12: 413-422. Hoffman, R.L. (1979): Classification of the Diplopoda. Museum D’Histoire Naturelle, Geneve. Pp. 1-237. Hoffman, R.L. (1990): Diplopoda. Pp. 835-860. In: Social Biology Guide (Ed: Dindal, D.L.). Wiley Interscience, New York, pp. 1349. Jeekel, C.A.W. (1968): On the classification and geographical distribution of the Family Paradoxosomatidae (Diplopoda: Polydesmida). Acad. Proefschr., Rotterdam. 1-168. Jeekel, C.A.W. (1980): On some little known Paradoxosomatidae from India and Ceylon, with the description of four new genera (Diplopoda: Polydesmida). Beaufortia. 30(8): 163-178. Appendix Field Identification of Orders of Class Diplopoda 1 . Body soft, with tufts of setae Polyxenida — Body hard, no tufts of setae 2 2. Adults at most with 13-22 body segments .... 3 — Adults with 26 or more body segments 6 3. Body flat. Adults with 20 segments. Segmental sclerites fused into a complete ring (monozoneate), tergites usually with lateral wings or keels Polydesmida — Body subcylindrical, each segment with a tergite, two pleurites and two coxosternites freely attached (pentazoneate); no lateral keels 4 4. Adults with 22 segments. Head without ocelli, animals unable to roll into a ball Glomeridesmida — Adults with 13 segments. Head with a row of ocelli, animals roll into a ball 5 5. Large animals, grey to black in colour, without ornamentation (giant pill millipedes) Sphaerotheriida — Small animals, jet black colour, some with bright coloured spots, 2nd and 3rd body segments fused into a broad plate Glomerida 70 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 DICHOTOMOUS KEY FOR FIELD IDENTIFICATION OF INDIAN DIPLOPODA 6. Head without ocelli, anteriorly produced into a beak or rostrum. Body densely hairy (pilose), — thin, long with large number of segments Siphonophorida — Head smooth, rounded, without beak or rostrum, 9. ocelli normally present. Body smooth 7 7. Body arched, with 26-30 segments without — ozopores, metaterga with keels 3+3 macrochaetae, epiproct with spinnerets 10. Chordeumatida — Body cylindrical, with more than 30 segments, metaterga without keels, no macrochaetae, — epiproct with simple spine, no spinnerets 8 8. 1 or 2 big ocelli on each side of head, pleurotergites with middorsal suture Stemmiulida Several small ocelli, ocular fields triangular, reniform or oval, segmental sclerites fused into a complete ring (monozoneate) 9 Head with a median clypeal suture, ocular fields rounded or oval Spirobolida Head with occipital suture, ocular fields triangular or reniform 10 Large millipedes, head with occipital suture, stipites of the gnathochilarium separated by a large mentum Spirostreptida Small millipedes, body up to 1.5 cm long, stipites of the gnathochilarium meeting in midline, mentum small transverse plate or 2 plates at the bases of the stipites Julida JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 71 NEW DESCRIPTIONS STUDIES ON OXYSYCHUS DELUCCHI, HYMENOPTERA: CHALCIDOIDE A : PTEROMALIDAE, FROM INDIA WITH THE DESCRIPTION OF A NEW SPECIES1 P.M. SURESHAN2 AND T.C. NARENDRAN3 ( With fifteen text-figures) Key words: Chalcidoidea, Pteromalidae, Oxysychus, O. macregaster sp. nov. The species of Oxysychus Delucchi, namely, O. coimbatorensis (Ferriere), O. nupserhae (Dutt & Ferriere), O. sphenopterae (Ferriere) from India are reviewed and one new species O. macregaster sp. nov. is described. A key to the species of Oxysychus from India is also provided. Introduction The genus Oxysychus Delucchi is well known from the Ethiopian, European and Oriental Regions. In India, this pteromalid genus is represented by O. sphenopterae , O. coimbatorensis , O. nupserhae and a new species O. macregaster which is described here. The observations on some character variations of propodeum, and number of tibial spurs are discussed. The diagnostic characters and illustrations of the species known from India are also provided. The terminology in this paper generally follows Graham (1969). The antennal funicular segments are numbered F1-F5 and the gastral tergites T1-T6, beginning with the first after the petiole and the last before the epipygium. The following abbreviations are used: OOL-Ocello- ocular distance; POL - post-ocellar distance; SMV- submarginal vein; MV- marginal vein; PMV - post marginal vein and STV - stigmal vein. The type specimens have been deposited with the Zoological Survey of India, Calicut. Oxysychus Delucchi Oxysychus Delucchi, 1956. Z. angew. Ent. 'Accepted March, 1999 Zoological Survey of India, Western Ghats Field Research Station, Calicut 673 002, Kerala, India. ’Department of Zoology, University of Calicut, Pin 673 635, Kerala, India. 39: 240. Type species Dinarmus silvestri Masi, by original designation. This plesiomorphic genus of Pteromalidae has a sessile gaster, extensive pilosity on the dorsal thorax and two spurs on the hind tibia (Boucek 1988). The other generic characters are: carinate pronotal collar; propodeum between spiracles almost flat or weakly convex; antenna in female with 3 anelli and 5 funicular segments, and in male 2 and 6 respectively. But our observations on the type specimen of Oxysychus sphenopterae revealed some variations in the above characters, such as hind tibia with one spur and propodeum with a weak median carina obliterated in the middle by an obscure cross ridge. We have not seen further material of Oxysychus sphenopterae , hence refrain from commenting on these variations. The hind tibial spurs are usually double and one may become rudimentary in Oxysychus sphenopterae as given by Mani (1989). Some specimens of Oxysychus macregaster sp. nov. also show variation in possessing a weak and complete median carina on propodeum, which is either absent or only slightly indicated anteriorly. Key to the Indian species of Oxysychus Delucchi 1 . Gaster with hind margins of T 1 -T3 medially produced and distinctly notched in the middle (Fig. 14); antennae slender (Fig. 12); forewing with PMV 2x STV; all femora testaceous macregaster sp. nov. 72 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 NEW DESCRIPTIONS — Gaster with hind margins of T1-T3 not produced or notched as above; antennae not very slender (Figs 2, 5, 8); PMV shorter, less than 2 x STV; femora brown to blackish- brown (prominent on hind femora) 2 2. Hind tibia with one spur; scutellum almost flat (Fig. 7); antennae with scape not reaching above level of vertex; propodeum (Fig. 10) with a weak median carina obliterated in the middle by an obscure cross ridge; forewing with STV slightly curved sphenopterae (Ferriere) — Hind tibia with two distinct spurs; scutellum convex; scape reaching above level of vertex; propodeum without median carina and cross ridge; STV not curved 3 3 . Gaster elongate, pointed at tip and distinctly narrower than thorax (Fig. 1); scutellum highly convex, almost as long as broad; antenna (Fig. 2) with club shorter than two preceding segments combined; STV shorter, only one third of MV coimbatorensis (Ferriere) — Gaster oval (Fig. 4), not narrower than thorax; scutellum less convex, shorter than broad; club a little longer than two preceding segments combined; STV longer, almost half of MV .... nupserhae (Dutt & Ferriere) Oxysychus coimbatorensis (Ferriere) (Figs 1-3) ? Dinarmus sauteri Masi, 1926. Konowia 5: 360. Farooqi & Subba Rao, 1986: 296 (Synonymy). Dinarmus coimbatorensis Ferriere, 1939: 164. Boucek et al. (1979): 449 (New combination). Farooqi & Subba Rao (1986) placed Dinarmus sauteri Masi under O. coimbatorensis with a question mark. We have examined the lectotype of O. coimbatorensis (Ferriere) and several freshly collected specimens. As the original description by Ferriere is fairly good, only diagnostic characters of the species are given here. Female: Length 2.5-5 mm. Head and thorax dark bluish-green; gaster aeneous, shining green at base; body stout, covered with distinct white pubescence; head and thorax reticulate punctate. Antennae (Fig. 2) with length of FI being 2x length of pedicel; club stout, oval, shorter than two preceding segments combined. Thorax (Fig. 1) convex; scutellum broadly rounded at tip, almost as long as broad; propodeum without median carina; forewing (Fig. 3) with MV 3x STV; PMV almost 2x STV. Gaster (Fig. 1) elongate, longer than head plus thorax, narrower than thorax. Some specimens have the last tergites less elongate and the gaster scarcely longer than head plus thorax. Male: Length 1.5-3 mm. Smaller, differs from the female in having antennae more elongate, with 2 anelli and 6 fiinicle segments; gaster oval, depressed, shorter than thorax, with a broad yellow spot reaching the middle. Biology: Parasitic on Hypolixus truncatulus (Fabricius), Pempherulus affinis (Faust) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) ex. Stem of Amaranthus viridis (Farooqi & Subba Rao 1986). Distribution: India (Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Delhi) and Pakistan. Material examined: Lectotype: Dinarmus coimbatorensis Ferriere, 1939, 9; S. India: Coimbatore, iv, vii, viii. 1939, Coll. P.N. Krishna Ayyar, ex. Pempheres affinis (British Mus. type. Hym. 5.673). Other material: 5 9, India: Kerala: Calicut University Campus, 14.ii.1985, v.1985, ix. 1 985 and x.1985, Coll. Narendran & party; 14 9,6 d*, Calicut University Campus, Coll. P.M. Sureshan 1986-1989; 1 9, Thekkady, 11. v. 1986; 3 9, Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary, 22.xii.1985; 2 9, Peechi, 29.x. 1985, Coll. Narendran & party; 15 9 and 2 d, Coll. P.M. Sureshan, different parts of Kerala 1986- 1989; 2 9, Andhra Pradesh: Tenali, 28.ix.1986, Coll. Narendran & party. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 73 NEW DESCRIPTIONS 1 mm 4 1 1 mm \ Figs 1-3: Oxysychus coimbatorensis (Ferriere), Female: 1. Body in profile, 2. Antenna, 3. Fore wing Figs 4-6: Oxysychus nupserhae (Dutt & Ferriere), Female: 4. Body in dorsal view, 5. Antenna, 6. Forewing 74 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 •*ii fii' NEW DESCRIPTIONS Oxysychus nupserhae (Dutt & Ferriere) (Figs 4-6) Neocatolaccus nupserhae Dutt & Ferriere, 1961. Indian J. Agr. Sci. 31: 139. Boucek et al. 1979: 450 (New combination). Diagnostic characters: Female: Length 3- 6 mm. Flead and thorax dark blue, almost black; gaster aeneous with coppery shine; head with frons swollen; cheeks large; vertex narrow; POL greater than OOL. Antennae (Fig. 5) inserted a little above lower ocular border; scape extends a little above vertex level; third anellus a little longer than others; club a little longer than two preceding segments together. Thorax (Fig. 4) rugulose punctate; pronotum very short; scutellum less convex, shorter than broad; propodeum with lateral folds less prominent; median carina absent. Forewing (Fig. 6) with MV almost half of SMV, STV half of MV. Legs strong; distal tibial ends and tarsi almost whitish. Gaster (Fig. 4) oval, pointed behind, not narrower than thorax, longer than head plus thorax. Male: Length 2.3-3 mm, smaller than female; antennae with 2 anelli and 6 funicular segments; gaster oval, equal to thorax, depressed, with a brown spot at the base reaching a little beyond middle. Biology: Parasitic on Cerambycid beetle Nupserha bicolor Thomson girdling the stem of Jute (Boucek et al. 1979). Distribution: India (Kerala, W. Bengal, Delhi) Material examined: 2 9,1 d, India: Kerala: Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary, 22.xii.1985, Coll. Narendran and party; 1 9, Wynad (Nanchal), 1 0.xii. 1 994, Coll. P.M. Sureshan; 1 d, Kazhakuttom, 25. ii. 1989, Coll. P.M. Sureshan; 11 9 and 7 d, Calicut University Campus, Coll. P.M. Sureshan 1986-1989. Oxysychus sphenopterae (Ferriere) (Figs 7-10) Neocatolaccus sphenopterae Ferriere, 1931. Bull. Ent. Res. 22: 130. Boucek et al. 1979: 450 (New combination). We have examined the holotype of this species, the observed diagnostic characters are given below: Female: Length: 3.3 mm. Head and thorax dark blue, almost black; gaster aeneous with a little greenish reflection on Tl; head punctate; lower face swollen; cheeks large. Antennae (Fig. 8) inserted in the middle of face, scape not exceeding above vertex level; third anellus little longer; flagellum thick; club a little shorter than two preceding segments combined. Thorax (Fig. 7) punctate; pronotum very short; mesoscutum flat above; scutellum as long as broad, almost flat; propodeum (Fig. 10) with an obscure median ridge and a weak median carina indicated only anteriorly. Forewing (Fig. 9) with MV half of SMV; STV half of MV, slightly curved. Legs strong, fore femora somewhat thickened; hind tibia with one strong spur. Gaster (Fig. 7) oval, pointed at apex, longer than thorax. Biology: Reported parasitic on larvae of the Buprestid beetle Sphenoptera gossypii from Sudan, Africa (Ferriere 1931). Mani (1938) reported it from the same host from Punjab, India. Distribution: India (Punjab) and Africa (Sudan). Material examined: Holotype: 9 in BMNH having data as follows: B.M. type Hym. 5.692. British Sudan: Wad Medani, 23. i. 1925, H.B. Johnston, ex. Sphenoptera gossypii Cotes. Oxysychus macregaster sp. nov. (Figs 11-15) Female: Length 2. 9-4.0 mm (Holotype 3.7 mm). Head and thorax bluish-black; gaster aeneous with bluish reflection on Tl; antennae testaceous, except club, FI and F5 brownish; coxae concolorous with thorax, except middle coxae brown, remainder of legs testaceous except tips of tarsi brown; tegulae brown; wings hyaline; veins pale brown. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 75 NEW DESCRIPTIONS y'iEN. T 1 mm v— H 1 mm Figs 7-10: Oxysychus sphenopterae (Ferriere), Female: 7. Body in profile, 8. Antenna, 9. Forewing, 10. Propodeum in dorsal view Figs 11-15: Oxysychus macregaster sp. nov., Female: 11. Body in profile, 12. Antenna, 13. Head in dorsal view, 14. Gaster in dorsal view, 15. Male antenna 76 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 NEW DESCRIPTIONS Head (Figs 11, 13): Moderately reticulate; clypeus striated. In dorsal view, head width 2. lx length and in front view width 1.3x height; temple length 0.2x. eye length; POL 1.5x OOL; eye length 1 ,5x width in profile; malar space half of eye length; clypeus bidentate. Antennae (Fig. 12) inserted a little below middle of face; scrobe deep; antennae slender; scape 0.9x eye length; pedicel length 2x width; third anellus a little longer than others; club as long as two preceding segments together. Relative lengths of FI to F5 : : 10:7: 6.5 : 6.5 : 6. Thorax (Fig. 11): Raised reticulate; pronotum finely margined. Mesoscutum width 2x length; notauli reaching up to middle. Scutellum convex, a little wider than long (20.5 : 18.5). Propodeum with no median carina (some specimens have a weak median carina which is also either incomplete or absent). Prepectus finely reticulate. Forewing (Fig. 11) with basal vein pilose; costal cell with upper half hairy. Relative lengths of SMV, MV, PMV and STV : 36.5 : 22.5 : 16.5 : 8. Legs slender; hind femora length 3.5x width and shorter than tibia (0.9x); hind tibia with two spurs. Garter (Figs 11, 14): Elongate, acuminate, longer than head plus thorax (60 : 44.5); hind margins of T1-T3 slightly produced and notched in the middle. Male (Fig. 15): Length 3.1 mm. Smaller than female; differs from female in having antenna with 2 anelli and 6 funicle segments; ocelli larger and gaster shorter, compressed, shorter than head plus thorax with a broad yellow spot reaching the middle. Distribution: India (Kerala). Refer Boucek, Z. (1988): Australasian Chalcidoidea (Hymenop- tera). C.A.B. International Wallingford, U.K. 1-83 1 . Boucek, Z., B.R. Subba Rao & S.I. Farooqi (1979): A preliminary review of Pteromalidae (Hymenoptera) of India and adjacent countries. Oriental Ins. J2(4): 433- 466. Material examined: Holotype: 9, india: Kerala: Calicut University Campus, 24.x. 1986, Coll. P.M. Sureshan; Allotype: d\ Peechi, 28.x. 1 989, Coll. Narendran and party; Paratypes: 1 9, Peechi, 5.ii. 1 989, Coll. P.M. Sureshan; 2 9, Shertallai, 27. ii. 1989; 19, data as that of holotype; 16 9, Calicut University Campus, Coll. P.M. Sureshan from 1986-89. Remarks: This species resembles O. ferus (Girault) in having slender antenna with FI length 2.5x width, F2 and F3 length 2x width, F5 equal to pedicel; forewing with PMV elongate, length 2x STV, less robust body, tegulae and general coloration yellow, but differs from ferus in having scape less than twice the club; propodeum without an obscure cross ridge before middle; gaster with T2 a little shorter than T3 and antenna reddish except reddish-black on scape and pedicel (in ferus scape length twice the club, propodeum with an obscure ridge before middle, T2 equal to T3 and T4, and antennae except scape and pedicel reddish- black). Acknowledgements P.M. Sureshan thanks the Director, Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata and the Officer-in-charge, Zoological Survey of India, Western Ghats Field Research Station, Calicut, Kerala for providing facilities and encouragement. We are grateful to Dr. John S. Noyes and Miss Suzanne Lewis, British Museum of Natural History, London, for kindly arranging the loan of type specimens. We thank Dr. Burwell Chris, Queensland Museum, Australia for providing some valuable literature on Pteromalidae. ENCES Delucchi, V. (1956): Beitrage Zur kenntnis der Pteromaliden (Hym. Chalcidoidea). Z angew. Ent. 39: 229-257. Dutt, N. & C. Ferriere ( 1961 ): On the Chalcidoid parasites of the Jute stem girdler from West Bengal. Indian J. agric. Sci. 31(2): 139-142. JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 77 NEW DESCRIPTIONS Farooqi, S.I. & B.R. Subba Rao (1986): Family Pteromalidae. In: The Chalcidoidea (Insecta: Hymenoptera) of India and the adjacent countries. Part. II. A catalogue (Eds.: Subba Rao & Hayat). Oriental Ins. 20. Pp. 279-306. Ferreere, C. (193 1): Notes on African Chalcidoidea. Bull, ent. Res. 22: 127-135. Ferriere, C. (1939): Chalcid flies attacking noxious beetles in India and New Guinea. Bull. ent. Res. 30: 163-168. Graham, M.W.R.Dev (1969): The Pteromalidae of North Western Europe (Hymenoptera : Chalcidoidea). Bull. Brit. Mus. Nat. Hist. Ent. Suppl. 16: 1-908. Mani, M.S. (1938): Catalogue of Indian Insects. Part 23- Chalcidoidea. Pp. 170, Delhi. Mani, M.S. (1989): The fauna of India and the adjacent countries. Chalcidoidea (Hymenoptera) Part I & II. Zool. surv. India. Pp. 1067. Masi, L. (1926): H. Sauter’s Formosa- Ausbeute. Chalcididae (Hym.) I. Teil, Konowia 5: 325-381. 78 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 A NEW GENUS AND TWO NEW SPECIES OF ARCTIINAE, ARCTIIDAE: LEPIDOPTERA, FROM INDIA1 Jagbir S. Kirti and Amritpal S. Kaleka2 ( With eighteen text-figures) Key words: Juxtarctia, J. monospinuatus sp. nov., J. bispinuatus sp. nov., genitalia, scales Two new species monospinuatus and bispinuatus referable to a new genus Juxtarctia are reported from India. The new genus is closely related to Spilarctia as far as general maculation and wing pattern are concerned. However, its unique, large juxta on the male genitalia makes it different from Spilarctia. The shape of valva and alar expanse are some of the other important features of the new genus. Both the new species can also be separated easily on the basis of aedeagus armature. Introduction During the surveys undertaken for the collection of Arctiid moths from various states of northeast and northwest India, a complex phena consisting of seven representatives, was collected from Jatinga (North Cachar Hills) Assam and Nauni (Solan district) Himachal Pradesh. All these individuals possessed a similar type of maculation and wing pattern, and their tentative sorting led to the inference that they belong to two closely allied species under genus Spilarctia Butler. However, both of them could not be identified from the relevant literature (Hampson 1894, 1901; Arora and Choudhary 1982) or from material available in the National Museums and the Natural History Museum, London. Hence, both these species are new and closely allied with each other on the basis of maculation and genitalia. These undescribed species are also closely related to Spilarctia multiguttata (Walker) on the basis of ground colour and general maculation, but are clearly different with respect to different genital structures and certain other morphological features. Comparison of the genital features of these two species with those of the type species of Spilarctia Butler and the congenerics, S. ‘Accepted August, 1999 department of Zoology, Punjabi University, Patiala 147 002, Punjab, India. multiguttata (Walker), S. casignata (Kollar), S. rubilinea (Moore), S. erythrozona (Kollar), S. leopardina (Kollar), S. comma (Walker), S. niceta (Stoll), and S. obliqua (Walker), reveal that the two species are unique. Nor can they be placed in the allied genera Thanatarctia Butler, Spilosoma Stephens and Diacrisia Hubner. The type species of these genera are clearly different and Koda (1988) has already differentiated all these genera in his paper entitled, “Generic classification of Subfamily Arctiinae of the Palaearctic and Oriental regions based on male and female genitalia”. He examined the genitalia of twenty-two species of genus Spilarctia , along with species of Thanatarctia. He also erected a new genus Cladarctia Koda on the basis of the unique male genitalia of an Indian species. The large and unique juxta, which is not seen in any other genus, the large alar expanse, and two pairs of semicircular signa in the corpus bursae of female genitalia distinguish the genus under consideration from the abovementioned i.e. Spilarctia, Spilosoma, Thanatarctia, Diacrisia and Cladarctia genera. Hence, a new genus Juxtarctia is proposed here to accommodate the two new species. The species bispinuatus is designated as the type of the new genus. The types are deposited in the Museum of Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata (Regn. No. JS-Zoo-Mus-101). JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 79 NEW DESCRIPTIONS Systematics Genus Juxtarctia gen. nov. Type Species: Juxtarctia bispinuatus sp. nov. Distribution: Assam and Himachal Pradesh. Diagnosis: Labial palpus long and porrect, reaching lower level of frons. Antenna bipectinate in male, serrate in female. Forewing with ground colour white, prominent black spots present; vein R1 originating from cell; vein R2-R5 stalked from upper angle of cell; M2 and M3 closely approximated from lower angle; Cu, and Cu2 arising from well before lower angle of cell. Hindwing with vein Sc+R, originating from before middle of cell; M from upper angle; M2 from near lower angle; Cu, from before lower angle of cell; Cu2 from middle of cell. Hind tibia with two pairs of spurs. Male genitalia with uncus of moderate size, swollen dorsally, tip curved; acrotergite well developed; fenestrula absent; tegumen longer than vinculum; vinculum short, with outer walls slightly produced; saccus small and curved; valva simple, with broad basal half and narrow cylindrical apical half; saccular margin produced into a rounded flaplike projection; sacculus and costa well defined; juxta exceptionally large and unique, broad at base, with two parallel sclerotized dilated flaps, supporting triangular bifurcated apical half; transtilla broad; aedeagus of moderate size, distinct sclerotization at distal end, bearing one or two large distinct spines; vesica armed with denticles and numerous spines. Female genitalia with corpus bursae membranous, irregular in shape, having distinct cervix bursae; accessory sac present; two pairs of semicircular serrated signa; ductus bursae strongly sclerotized, narrow above and broad at distal end; anterior apophyses less than half the length of posterior apophyses; anterior apophyses with their apices pointed, posterior apophyses with blunt tips; papilla analis rounded and broad, fringed with an array of micro and macro setae. Key to the species of genus Juxtarctia gen. nov. 1 Forewing with veins R2-R. stalked from before upper angle of cell, M2 and M3 minutely stalked from lower angle of cell; hindwing with vein Rs arising from before upper angle of cell; male genitalia with uncus having blunt tip; valva with apical portion of equal width, tip broad; juxta with apical margin bearing well sclerotized small setae; aedeagus with two prominent spines at distal end bispinuatus sp. nov. — Forewing with vein R2-R. stalked from upper angle, M2 from just above lower angle, M3 from lower angle of cell; hindwing with vein Rs from upper angle of cell; male genitalia with uncus having pointed tip; valva with apical portion gradually narrowing towards its tip; juxta with apical margin without any armature; aedeagus with a large prominent spine at distal end monospinuatus sp. nov. Juxtarctia bispinuatus sp. nov. (Figs 1-9) Head with vertex and frons furnished with orange yellow scales. Antenna with scape having orange yellow scales, flagellum black. Eyes golden brown. Labial palpus long and porrect, reaching lower level of frons; first segment decorated with black scales, underside fringed with yellow; second and third segments black. Thorax clothed with white scales; meso- and metathorax bear black spots; collar covered with orange scales and black spots; tegula white, spotted with black. Forewing with ground colour white; a basal black spot; three subbasal black spots; a streak-like spot on costa; an antemedial series of five spots, those below cell and 1 A being placed outwards; a medial series of seven spots, excurved strongly at lower margin of cell; two prominent spots in cell and one beyond discocellulars; two postmedial series, first of nine spots, excurved below costa, incurved below vein 80 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 NEW DESCRIPTIONS Rl R2 sc+Rars POAPO APO CEB Figs 1-9: Juxtarctia bispinuatus sp. nov., 1. Forewing, 2. Hindwing, 3. Male genitalia, 4. Valva (left) - ventrolateral view, 5. Valva (left) - inner view, 6. Uncus - lateral view, 7. Aedeagus - dorsal view, 8. Aedeagus - ventral view, 9. Female genitalia JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 81 NEW DESCRIPTIONS M3; second again of nine spots, excurved in middle; submarginal series of paired spots on veins M2 to Cu, and a black dot on Cu2; six marginal spots present; veins R^R,. stalked from before upper angle of cell; M2 and M3 minutely stalked from lower angle of cell. Hindwing with ground colour orange yellow; in male, two antemedial black spots, one on costa and another in cell; in female, an antemedial series of spots on either side of upper and lower margin of cell and vein 2a, becoming larger towards costa; two postmedial spots, one on costa and another below Sc+R,; discoidal spots one on inner side and another beyond discocellulars; submarginal series of paired spots on veins Rs, M2, Cu2 and 2A; five marginal spots; fringe orange; vein Rs originating from before upper angle of cell; M2 from above lower angle of cell; Cu, from before lower angle of cell. Legs with coxae clothed with yellow scales, fore coxae with large black patches; femora furnished black above, pale yellow below; tibia and tarsi dressed with yellow scales, streaked with black; outer tibial spurs almost half length of inner spurs. Abdomen decorated with orange yellow scales; short segmental bands on dorsal side except on first two segments; last segment with a prominent black spot; lateral and submarginal series of black spots. Male genitalia with uncus short, broad, strongly swollen dorsally, setosed, tip slightly curved, blunt; tegumen broad and sclerotized, almost double the length of vinculum; vinculum broad towards tegumen, narrow towards saccus; saccus small, V-shaped. Valva broad, sacculus distinct, narrow at basal end, constricted in middle with flap-like projections; costa well defined, cucullus and valvula fused into a rounded cylindrical distal half; juxta large and unique with lateral flaps broad, triangular projection slightly notched, with layers of well sclerotized setae; transtilla rounded, oval, semisclerotized. Aedeagus long, slightly curved in middle, both of its walls equally sclerotized, with a distinct sclerotization at distal end, bearing two distinct, but unequal, blunt spines; vesica armed with large number of denticles and distinct pointed comuti. Female genitalia as described in diagnosis of the genus. Wing Expanse (Half): Male 25 mm; Female 25 mm. Material Examined: Holotype: india: Assam: North Cachar Hills, Jatinga, 900 m, 1.x. 1995, one male. Coll. A.R Singh. Paratypes: india: Assam: North Cachar Hills, Jatinga, 900 m, 1.x. 1995, one male, Himachal Pradesh: Nauni, 900 m, 2.viii. 1 994, one female, Coll. A.P. Singh. Etymology: The name of the species pertains to the armature of aedeagus. Juxtarctia monospinuatus sp. nov. (Figs 10-18) Head with vertex and ffons covered with orange yellow scales. Antenna with scape studded with orange scales, flagellum black. Eyes golden brown with black spots. Labial palpus porrect, reaching lower level of frons, first and second segments decorated with black scales, underside fringed with yellow; third segment black. Thorax covered with white scales; meso and metathorax with black spots; collar orange, spotted with black; tegula covered with white scales and black spots. Forewing with ground colour white; a basal black spot; three subbasal black spots; an antemedial series of five spots, spots below cell and 1A placed outwards; a medial series of seven spots, strongly angled outwards on lower margin of cell; spots in each angle and one beyond discocellulars; two postmedial series of nine spots each, first one bent outwards from costa, then inwardly oblique below median nervure, second excurved in middle, incurved below Cu,; submarginal series of spots on each side of veins R4-Cu,, those on M2 placed outwards; a marginal series of six spots; fringe white; underside orange yellow 82 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 NEW DESCRIPTIONS O.OGrnin Figs 10-18: Juxtarctia monospinuatus sp. nov., 10. Forewing, 11. Hindwing, 12. Male genitalia, 13. Valva (left) - ventrolateral view, 14. Valva (left) - inner view, 15. Uncus - lateral view, 16. Saccus - lateral view, 17. Aedeagus - dorsal view, 18. Aedeagus - ventral view JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 83 NEW DESCRIPTIONS except at apical area, spots larger and diffused; veins R2-R5 stalked from upper angle of cell; M2 arising from just above lower angle of cell. Hindwing with ground colour orange yellow; two antemedial spots on costa and cell; two black spots present inside discocellulars and another one outside of discocellulars; submarginal spots on each side of R5, M2, Cu2 and 2A; marginal spots on either side of M,, M2, M3 and Cu2, spots diffused on underside and conjoined; veins Rs and M originating from upper angle of cell; M2 from above lower angle of cell; Cu, well before lower angle of cell. Legs with coxae covered with yellow scales, fore coxae with large black patches; femora black above, pale yellow ventrally; tibia and tarsi decorated with yellow scales, streaked with black; outer tibial spurs half the length of inner ones. Abdomen clothed with orange yellow scales; short segmental bands on dorsal side, except on first two segments; a large rounded spot present on last segment; lateral and sublateral series of black spots; underside with black bands on seventh, eighth and ninth segments. Male genitalia with uncus short, broad, strongly swollen on dorsal side, setosed, tip slightly curved and sharply pointed; tegumen broad, much longer than vinculum; vinculum short, broad, sclerotized, with outer walls slightly produced; saccus small, V-shaped. Valva simple, divided into two halves, broad at base, narrow and cylindrical above; sacculus distinct, costa defined; saccular margin produced into a rounded flaplike projection; cucullus and valvula fused; juxta exceptionally large and unique, broad at base, with two parallel sclerotized dilated flaps, narrow at both ends, supporting triangular bifurcated, well developed structure above these flaps; transtilla broad, semisclerotized. Aedeagus long, tip rounded, both of its walls equally sclerotized, a distinct sclerotization at distal end, bearing a large distinct spine; vesica armed with denticles and large number of spines. Female genitalia not examined. Wing Expanse (Half): Male 24 mm. Material Examined: Holotype: india: Assam: North Cachar Hills, Jatinga, 900 m, 29. ix. 1995, one male, Coll. A.R Singh. Paratypes: india: Assam, North Cachar Hills, Jatinga, 900 m., ll.ix.1991, one male; 25. ix. 1995, one male; 1.x. 1995, one male, Coll. A.P. Singh. Remarks: The new species monospinuatus is closely allied to bispinuatus sp. nov. on the basis of general ground colour, ornamentation of wings, labial palpus and abdomen. It is distinct from bispinuatus with respect to uncus having a pointed tip, valva with prominent saccular finger-like projection and an altogether different juxta. Aedeagus of this species is also distinct from the type species. Etymology: The species has been named after the single prominent spine in the vesica of aedeagus. Abbreviations: 1A: First anal vein, 2A: Second anal vein, AED: Aedeagus, ANT.APO: Anterior apophyses, CE.B: Cervix Bursae, CO: Costa, CRN: Cornuti, CRP.BU: Corpus Bursae, Cu,: First Cubital Vein, Cu2: Second Cubital Vein, DU.BU: Ductus bursae, DU.EJ: Ductus ejaculatorius, F: Frenulum, JX: Juxta, M : First median vein, M2: Second median vein, M3: Third median vein, PAP.A: Papilla analis, PO.APO: Posterior apophyses, R : First radial vein, R2: Second radial vein, R3: Third radial vein, R4: Fourth radial vein, R$: Fifth radial vein, Rs: Radial sector, SA: Saccus, Sc: Subcosta, Sc+R,: Stalk of Sc+R,, SIG Signum, SL: Sacculus, TG: Tegumen, TRA: Transtilla, UN: Uncus, VES: Vesica, VIN: Vinculum, VLV: Valva. Acknowledgement Financial assistance by CS1R, New Delhi is gratefully acknowledged. 84 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 NEW DESCRIPTIONS Refer Arora, G.S. & M. Choudhary (1982): On the Lepidopterous fauna of Arunachal Pradesh and adjoining areas of Assam in northeast India. Family Arctiidae. Zool. Surv. India, Tech. Monogr. No. 6: 1-63. Hampson, G.F. (1894): Fauna of British India, Moths, including Ceylon & Burma 2: 1-609. Taylor and Francis Ltd., London. ENCES Hampson, G.F. (1901): Catalogue of Lepidoptera Phalaenae in the British Museum. 3: 1-690. Koda, Nobutoyo (1988): A generic classification of the subfamily Arctiinae of Palaearctic and Oriental regions based on male and female genitalia (Lepidoptera: Arctiidae) Part-II. Tyo to ga 38(3): 1-79. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 85 A NEW BARILINE CYPRINID FISH OF THE GENUS BARILIUS HAMILTON, FROM MANIPUR, INDIA' Waikhom Vishwanath and Wahengbam Manojkumar1 2 ( With two text-figures) Key words: Bariline cyprinid fish, Barilius ngawa sp. nov., Manipur Barilius ngawa, a new species is described from the Manipur river, Manipur, India. The fish is characterised by an elongated body, moderate body depth (22.5-26.9% of standard length), 42-43 perforated scales along the lateral line, 21-22 scales on the mid-dorsal streak in front of dorsal fin insertion and 16-17 circumpeduncular scales, 13-14 vertical dark bars on sides, and diameter of eyes 21.3-25.8 of length of head length. The species is distinct from the Burmese forms B. barnoides Vinciguerra and B. ornatus Sauvage in having more lateral line scales, shallower body and smaller eyes. Introduction Species of Barilius Hamilton (1822) are compressed, their scales are marked with incomplete transverse bars or spots, dorsal fins are inserted beyond the middle of the fish. The systematic position of the genus has been studied in detail by Howes (1980) based on detailed anatomical and osteological characters. The taxon now inhabits the Indian subcontinent, Thailand, Myanmar, South China (Yunnan), Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam and Borneo. The genus is characterised by having a deep rostrally curved ethmoid region, elongated nasals and parietals and reduced lateral ethmoids. The Indo-Burmese species, namely Barilius bola (Hamilton) and B. guttatus Day have been placed in the genus Raiamas Jordan on the basis of their features such as a greatly expanded kinethmoid, long shallow jaws and reduced premaxillary ascending process (Howes 1980). Three species of Barilius were hitherto known from Manipur, India. They are B. barila (Hamilton), B. bendelisis (Hamilton) and B. dogarsinghi Hora. Of these, the first two are widely distributed both in the Ganga- 1 Accepted June, 1999 department of Life Sciences, Manipur University, Canchipur 795 003, Manipur, India Brahmaputra system; and the last, only in the streams of Manipur, leading to the Chindwin drainage of Myanmar. While making collections in the Manipur River System leading to the Chindwin, a new Barilius was discovered and is described below. Material and Methods Fishes were collected by gill net and preserved in 10% formalin. Photographs were taken before preservation. Details of the collection and coloration were noted. Counts and measurements follow Jayaram (1981). Dial calipers were used for measurement up to 0. 1 mm accuracy. The specimens were deposited in the Manipur University Fish Museum (MUFM). Abbreviations: SL = standard length, and HL = head length. Barilius ngawa sp. nov. (Fig. 1) Holotype: MUFM 149, 84.8 mm, Sherou river, (tributary of Manipur river), 24° 18' N, 93° 54' E, 83 km south of Imphal, Manipur, W. Manojkumar, 20.iii.1993. Paratype: MUFM 150,40 exs., 61.5-134.3 mm, same data as holotype. Diagnosis: An elongated Barilius of moderate body depth, its depth 22.5-26.9% of 86 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 NEW DESCRIPTIONS Fig. 1: Paratype of Barilius ngawa (MUMF 150/1), 124 mm SL SL. 42-43 perforated scales along the lateral line. Proportional measurements of holotype 21-22 scales on mid-dorsal streak in front of and paratype (range in parentheses) in percentage dorsal fin insertion and 16-17 circumpeduncular of SL are given in Table 1. scales. Vertical bars on sides 13-14; eye diameter Coloration: In life, sides are silvery, dorsal 21 .3-25.8 of HL. golden yellow, darkest at the mid-dorsal line. Sides Description: D. ii-iii, 7-8; P. i, 12-13; V. with 13-14 vertical blue-black bars extending to i, 7, 1; A. ii-iii, 10-11; C. 19 (10+9); L.l. 42-43; the lateral line region of the body. Dorsal fm with L. tr. 8/1/2; PDS. 2 1 -22. Body compressed, snout a dark band. Caudal with dark margins. Fins with pointed, mouth terminal, gape of mouth reaching orange coloration in the margin, the middle of orbit, eyes large, but smaller than Etymology: The local name is Nga-wa other related species (Table 1). Barbels 2 pairs. (Nga = fish; wa = swift movement of shoal). The Snout long, its length equals interorbital space, species is named after its local name. Dorsal fin inserted opposite interspace between Habitat: The Manipur river follows a pelvic and anal fin base. Lower jaw with a southward course, receiving several hill streams, symphysis and upper jaw with a notch to receive and flows out of the State into Myanmar after the knob. Depth of body equals length of head, receiving a tributary called Yankoilok. It then Pelvic fin short. Caudal fin deeply forked, the flows in the Chin Hills and then finally joins lobes are equal, muscular pads are present at the the Chindwin. The river has clear water with base of pectoral and pelvic fins. rocks and pebbles at the substratum. Sherou, the Fig. 2: Barilius barnoides (CMK 4280), collected by P. Hobleman from Mae Son Province, Thailand JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 87 NE W DESCRIPTIONS Table 1 COMPARISON OF MORPHOMETRIC CHARACTERS OF BARILIUS NGA WA SP. NOV. WITH THOSE OF B. BARNOIDESV INCIGUERRA AND B. ORNATUS SAUVAGE Barilius ngawa sp. nov. Barilius barnoides Barilius ornatus Holotype Paratype CMK4053& After Kottelat ZSI 6/ (range) 4280 (1984) 2986-87 N 1 40 2 2 2 SL (mm) 84.8 35.0-134.3 61.2-83.3 90.0-92.0 67.0-89.2 In % ofSIL Body depth of dorsal origin 24.1 22.5-26.9 27.5-29.8 33.6-35.6 31.1-31 .3 Body depth at pelvic origin 25.8 23.7-29.3 29.6-32.4 - - Head length 24.8 24.7-26.9 26.1-26.4 27.8-28.3 26.9-29.4 Predorsal length 56.3 55.1-57.8 57.3-57.7 59.8-64.4 52.2-58.9 Length of caudal fin 25.5 24.0-28.6 29.9-30.7 - - Height of dorsal fin 17.8 17.7-19.9 20.8-24.0 - 24.0-24.6 Length of dorsal fin base 11.7 11.1-13.7 14.4-15.0 - 12.5-14.7 Length of pectoral fin 19.1 19.4-21.1 21.9-23.6 - 22.4-24.0 Length of pelvic fin 12.5 12.3-14.3 15.0-16.2 - 16.4-16.5 Length of anal fin 13.8 13.8-16.4 16.8-17.3 - 21.7-22.4 Length of anal fin base 14.9 14.0-17.6 16.3-18.3 - 14.5-14.7 Prepelvic length 47.8 47.8-51.6 49.3-52.5 56.5-58.9 - Preanal length 68.0 66.0-69.9 68.8-70.8 75.0-78.9 - Pre-anus length In % of head length 65.0 63.2-66.7 60.0-66.8 72.8-77.8 - Height of head at occiput 69.5 63.0-76.6 78.06-79.4 - 73.9-82.0 Length of snout 31.0 29.7-31.2 29.5-33.8 26.9-28.0 32.0-36.2 Diameter of eyes 24.8 21.3-25.8 27.3-29.4 - 27.8-31.6 Interorbital space 33.3 29.1-34.4 33.7-36.3 38.8-32.0 32.8-33.3 Length of caudal peduncle 73.8 69.3-79.0 58.2-65.0 56.0-61.5 45.9-61.1 Height of caudal peduncle 40.0 37.4-43.4 42.5-46.4 42.3-44.0 41.0-44.28 Width ofhead 44.8 38.0-45.9 43.2-45.0 - 34.8-44.4 In % of length of caudal peduncle Height of caudal peduncle In % of distance between 54.2 54.2-66.7 65.4-79.7 68.8-78.6 70.0-89.3 pelvic and anal fins Vent to anal origin In % of distance between 9.6 5.3-11.3 8. 9-9. 8 - - pelvic and caudal fins Vent to pelvic fin origin COUNTS 35.5 33.9-38.3 33.6-34.8 - - D rays iii, 7 ii-iii, 7-8 ii, 8 iii, 7-8 iii, 8 P rays i, 12 I, 12-13 i, 12 14-15 i, 13-14 V rays i,8 i,8 i,8 9-10 i,8 A rays ii, 11 ii-iii, 10-11 ii, 11 iii, 10-1 1 iii, 1 0-1 1 C rays 10+9 10+9 10+9 9+8 19 L. 1 (Lateral line longitudinal scales) 42 42-43 40 41 38-40 L. tr. (Lateral transverse scales) 8/1/2 8/1/2 7/ 1/2-3 H7/l/2h 7/1/2 Predorsal scales 21 21-22 17-18 14-16 19-20 Circumpeduncular scales 16 16-17 14 12 - Transverse bands 13 13-14 9-10 - - 88 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 NEW DESCRIPTIONS type locality has an elevation of about 750 m above msl and water temperature ranges between 8-25 °C, whereas the elevation of Yangkoilok is about 1 00 m above msl and water temperature is 8-28 °C. The river is mostly shallow (1.5- 2.0 m deep), but there are rocky pools where the depth exceeds 3.5 m. The river has a luxuriant growth of shrubs, trees and bamboos on both banks, and paddy fields wherever there is human habitation. Discussion: Barilius ngawa is close to B. bamoides Vinciguerra (Fig. 2) in its predorsal length, counts of dorsal, pectoral, ventral and anal fms, but differs in having smaller number of caudal fm rays, greater number of lateral line scale rows, fewer lateral transverse scales, greater number of predorsal scales. It also has a shallower body and smaller diameter of eyes. B. ngawa is also distinct from the upper Burma form (Shan State), i.e. B. ornatus Sauvage in having greater number of lateral line scales and circumpeduncular scales, shallower body, shorter head and predorsal length, smaller eye diameter, greater snout length and lesser height of caudal peduncle. A comparative account of the meristic characters and proportional measurements is given in Table 1 . The new species also differs from Barilius dogarsinghi Hora in having greater numbers of transverse bars on the body (13-14 vs. 8-9) and more prominent symphyseal knob on the lower jaw. Kottelat ( 1 984) mentioned that the description of Danio monshiensis Wu et al. agreed with that of Barilius bamoides except for the length of the caudal Refer Hamilton, F. ( 1 822): An account of the fishes found in the River Ganges and its branches. Archibald, Constable & Co., Edinburg & London, viii+405 pp. 39 pis. Howes, G.J. (1980): The anatomy, phylogeny and classification of bariline cyprinid fishes. Bull. Br. Mus. nat. Hist. (Zool) 37(3): 129-198. Jayaram, K.C. (1981): The freshwater fishes of India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Burma and Sri Lanka — a peduncle. However, Danio monshiensis of Yunnan, China (as per description by Wu et al. 1964), differs from B. bamoides in having 15- 17 transverse bars on the body (although the drawing No. 1-44 of the paper shows only 13 bars) vs. 9-10 bars and lateral line scales 42-44 vs. 40-41. The new species is also distinguished from monshiensis in having a greater number of predorsal scales (21-22 vs. 18-19), circumpeduncular scales (16-17 vs. 14-15) and equal caudal fm lobes vs. unequal caudal fm lobes with the lower lobe conspicuously longer. Talwar and Jhingran (1991) considered B. ornatus Sauvage as a synonym of B. bamoides Vinciguerra, by confining the distribution of the latter to Myanmar. But B. ornatus described by Kottelat (1984), differs from B. ornatus examined by us in predorsal scale and circumpeduncular scale counts (Table 1). Comparative materials. Barilius ornatus , ZSI 2986-87, 2 exs., Nampamdet, Shan States, Barilius bamoides (CMK 4053, 4280, 2exs., Mae Hong Son Province, Thailand. CMK = Collections of Maurice Kottelat, Switzerland) Acknowledgments We thank the Director, Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata, for permitting us to examine types of Barilius ornatus in the National Museum, Kolkata, and Dr. Maurice Kottelat, Switzerland for the loan of Barilius bamoides collected from Thailand. ENCES handbook. Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta, xxii+475 pp. 208 figs., 13 pis. Kottelat, M. ( 1 984): A review of the species of Indochinese freshwater fishes described by H.E. Sauvage. Bull. Mus. natn. Hist. nat. Paris (4) 6(A3): 791-822. Talwar, P.K. & A.G. Jhingran (1991): Inland fishes of India and adjacent countries. Vol 1, Oxford & 1BH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi. Pp. 541 . JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 89 TWO NEW SPECIES OF SCHIZOMIDS FROM INDIA WITH RANGE EXTENSION FOR SCHIZOMUS TIKADERI (ARACHNIDA: SCHIZOMIDA)1 D.B. Bastawade2 ( With twenty-six text-figures ) Key words: Arachnida, Schizomida, Schizomus chalakudicus sp. nov., S. chaibassicus sp. nov., S. tikaderi, new description, range extension Schizomid collections deposited by F.H. Gravely in the erstwhile Indian Museum, Calcutta (= Kolkata) were located and studied. The specimens collected from Chaibassa, Chhota Nagpur, Bihar and Chalakudi near Cochin, Kerala are new species and have been described and illustrated. The specimens for Schizomus tikaderi were collected from localities other than the type locality and have been added as new known localities and range extension for this species in Western India. The schizomids, tiny animals which inhabit specialized habitats, occupy a distinct order amongst the Arachnids. They have received little attention from arachnologists, and need thorough exploration. Pocock (1900) has reported four species under the Suborder Tartarides in the fauna of British india. Subsequently, Gravely (1911a, 1911b, 1912, 1915, 1925) collected schizomids from India, Sri Lanka and Burma, and described three new species from India (Bastawade 1985, Bastawade and Pal 1992, Cockendolpher 1981, Cockendolpher et al. 1994 and Reddell and Cockendolpher 1985, 1991). Fernando (1957) described a new species from Sri Lanka. Cockendolpher, Sissom and Bastawade (1988) have described a new species Schizomus tikaderi from Maharashtra, India. The type specimens of the three new species described by Gravely were deposited in the collections of the erstwhile Indian Museum, Calcutta (presently called the National Collections, Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata). He also deposited some undescribed schizomid collections, which have been studied by the author, and two new species Schizomus chalakudicus sp. nov. and S. chaibassicus sp. nov., 'Accepted August, 1999 Zoological Survey of India, Western Regional Station, Vidyanagar, Sector 29, Opp. Akurdi Railway Station, Rawet Road, Akurdi, Pune 41 1 044, Maharashtra, India. from Kerala and Bihar states respectively, described here. Two new records of Schizomus tikaderi from the Western Ghats, Maharashtra, have also been given. Schizomus chalakudicus sp. nov. (Figs 1-13) Female, cephalothorax smooth, propel- tidium acutely pointed on mid anterior margin, bent down at the forward end and supported with a median seta and a pair of basal setae, three pairs of dorsal submedian setae present, eyes or eyespots totally absent, mesopeltidium very thin and separated medially, metapeltidium deeply notched on anterior middle portion, no setae clearly noticed. Sternal setae not clear, but a pair of long stemapophysial setae present on anterior margin of anterior sternum. Abdomen with tergites and sternites smooth, setation not clear, except for a pair of dorsal median setae on tergites I-IV; tergites X- XIII telescoped, with no clearly identifiable setae, segment XII without posterior process but armed with a pair of spinose setae, other setae unclear. Flagellum three segmented, only one pair of lateral and dorsal setae clearly present on the last annulus (Fig. 8). Stemite I: 0.86 times as wide. Spermathecae tubuliform, with numerous irregular shaped tubes on each side (Figs 9-13). 90 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR 2002 NEW DESCRIPTIONS Figs 1-13 Schizomus chalakudicus sp. nov., 1. Dorsal view of Cephalothorax, 2. Lateral view of Pedipalp, 3. Lateral view of Chelicera, 4. Lateral view of immovable finger of Chelicera, 5. Lateral view of inner margin of movable finger of Chelicera showing serrula, 6. Lateral view of Femur IV, 7. Lateral view of tarsus of leg I, 8. Lateral aspect of Flagellum, 9-12. Ventral view of Spermathecae and gonopods, 13. Details of tubuliform spermathecae JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 91 NEW DESCRIPTIONS Chelicera with basal segment twice as wide, types of setae present as 1=3, 2=4, 3=6-7, 4=2, 5=7, and 6=1; immovable finger with three sharp teeth between two large teeth (Fig. 4), movable finger smooth except a rounded tooth at distal end of 11-12 sutured serruia on inner margin (Fig. 5). Pedipalp with almost triangular form of trochanter, with 5-6 spinose setae on exterior ventral margin, femur round with an inner knob (Fig. 2), mesal surface with 5 spinose setae clearly noticed on ventromesal surface, all carinae obsolete; patella smooth, no spur on ventrolateral surface but only a few plumose setae seen; tibia also smooth, carinated, 4 spinose setae on ventromesal margin, carinae obsolete. Basitarsus-tarsus smooth, claw as long as basitarsus, spur about 1/3. Legs I-IV as in Table 1, Femur IV 2.25 times as wide (Fig. 6). Measurements (in mm): Total length 5.59; Cephalothorax 1.72 (Propeltidium 1.2 & Mesopeltidium 0.51), Abdomen 3.07 and Flagellum 0.77. Material examined: Holotype 1 9 (in spirit) deposited in the National Zoological Collections of the Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata, Regn. No. not stated, Coll. F.H. Gravely, 14-30. ix. 1914, type locality Chalakudi near Cochin (previously Cochin state), Kerala, India. Distribution: Known only from the type locality. Etymology: The new species has been named after the type locality Chalakudi. Schizomus chaibassicus sp. nov. (Figs 14-26) Female of 6.106 mm body size (except flagellum), pale yellowish-brown, paler on digits, body surface smooth, flagellum of three annulli. Cephalothorax with smooth propeltidium, pointed medially on anterior margin, slightly bent forward, supported with a pair of basal setae, one pair of dorsal setae situated posteriorly at 1 .05 mm, a pair of inconspicuous lateral eyespots present, mesopeltidium narrow, separated medially by almost half of its length, metapeltidium undivided, at the most notched medially on anterior margin (Fig. 14). Abdomen with all tergites and sternites smooth, tergites I-IX each provided with a pair of median and a pair of lateral setae, tergites X- XI telescoped with 2-3 pairs of dorsal setae, sternite I 0.86 mm long and 1.03 mm wide, setation unclear; segment XII with two dorsal spinose setae and two pairs of ventral setae, without a dorsal process. Flagellum of three annulli, 0.645 mm long, setation as in Figs 21 & 22. Spermathecae elongated, lobate and form a cluster of 8-9 lobes as in Figs 23-26. Chelicera 1.62 mm long, basal segment almost twice as wide, with a forwardly bent spinulated spine present on dorsal sub-basal portion, fixed finger with only two teeth Table 1 MEASUREMENTS IN MM FOR THE PEDIPALP AND LEGS I-IV OF SCHIZOMUS CHALAKUDICUS SP. NOV. Trochanter Femur Patella Tibia Basitarsus Tarsus Total Pedipalp 0.602 0.645 0.688 0.645 0.612 3.10 Legs I 0.452 1.333 1.591 1.505 0.473 0.903 6.257 II — 0.860 0.516 0.666 0.516 0.430 — III 0.344 0.946 0.473 0.430 0.559 0.566 3.268 IV 0.430 1.548 0.688 0.989 0.774 0.686 5.117 92 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 NEW DESCRIPTIONS Figs 14-26 Schizomus chaibassicus sp. nov., 14. Dorsal view of Cephalothorax, 15. Lateral view of Pedipalp, 16. Lateral view of Chelicera, 17. Lateral view of immovable finger of Chelicera, 18. Lateral view of inner margin of movable finger of Chelicera showing serrula, 19. Enlarged view of ‘blood hair’ of Type I on immovable digit of Chelicera, 20. Outer (lateral) view of Femur IV, 21. Lateral view of Flagellum, 22. Dorsal view of Flagellum, 23-25. Ventral view of Spermathecae and gonopods, 26. Details of tubuliform spermathecae JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY 99(1), APR. 2002 93 NEW DESCRIPTIONS Table 2 MEASUREMENTS (MM) OF PEDIPALP AND LEGS I-I V OF SCHIZOMUS CHAIBASSICUS SP. NOV. Trochanter Femur Patella Tibia Basitarsus Tarsus Total Pedipalp 0.903 0.860 0.903 0.731 0.301 3.698 Legs I 0.559 1.935 1.849 1.548 0.473 0.817 7.181 II 0.301 1.505 0.645 0.817 0.688 0.473 4.429 III 0.387 1.118 0.516 0.645 0.731 0.645 4.042 IV 0.430 1.763 0.817 1.247 1.032 0.774 6.063 (Fig. 17), 13-14 minutely sutured serrula on inner margin without guard teeth, types of setae present as 1=4, 2=4, 3=5, 4=2, 5=7 and 6=1. Pedipalp with trochanter acutely produced anteriorly, ventromesal margin with 7 stout spinose setae (Fig. 15), femur not rounded, smooth, without carinae, anteroventral margin with 3 spinose setae, mesal with 1 seta; patella acarinated, smooth, ventrolateral margin with 3 spinose setae, one much longer, dorsal surface with 2 to 4 long setae; tibia with scattered delicate setae, dorsal surface with few plumose and 3 spinose setae; basitarsus-tarsus with several long plumose setae on ventromesal and ventral surface, claw about 2/3 of basitarsus-tarsus, spur about 1/3, anterior sternum with 7-8 setae and a pair of long stenapophysial setae, posterior sternum with 10 setae. Legs I-IV as in Table 2, Femur IV 2.8 times as wide as long (Fig. 20). Measurements (in mm): Total length 6.106, Carapace 2.236 (Propeltidium 1.806, mesopeltidium, metapeltidium 0.43); Abdomen 3.87, Flagellum 0.645. Material examined: Holotype 1 9 (in spirit) deposited in the National Zoological Collections of the Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata; Regn. No. not stated, Coll. P.E. Gravely, 1.x. 19 19, Type locality a pass between Chaibass and Chakradharpur, Chota Nagpur, Bihar, India. Distribution: Known only from the type locality. Etymology: The species name is derived from the type locality Chaibass. Schizomus tikaderi Cockendolpher, Sissom and Bastawade This interesting species of Schizomida is so far known only from Sinhagad, Dist. Pune (Flolotype) and from Bhiv Ghat, Dist. Sangli, Maharashtra (Paratype) (Cockendolpher et al, 1988). During recent surveys of the Western Ghats, the author could collect 2 9 9 from Phonda Ghat (800 m above msl) and 2 $ 9 , 1 <$ immature from Amboli Ghat (650 m above msl) both in Sindhudurg district, Maharashtra, thus extending its distributional range southwards in western peninsular India. Acknowledgements I sincerely thank the Director, Addnl Directors, Jt Directors and Dy Directors of the Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata, Freshwater Biological Station, Hyderabad and Western Regional Station, Pune, and all officers and staff of ZSI, Kolkata and different Regional Stations for providing financial grants, permitting to study old material and generous help during the studies. I thank Mr. and Mrs. Cockendolpher and Mr. Reddel, Texas, USA for valuable literature and guidance. I also thank Mr. P.W. Garde, ZSI, WRS, Pune for artworks. 94 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 NEW DESCRIPTIONS Refer Bastawade, D.B. (1985): The first report of the order Schizomida (Arachnida) from Southern India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 82(3): 690-691 Bastawade, D.B. & T.K. Pal (1992): First record of the Arachnid order Schizomida from Arunachal Pradesh, India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 89(1): 137. Cockendolpher, J . (1 98 1 ): The order Schizomida. Austral. Arachnid. 5: 6-7. Cockendolpher, J., W.D. Sissom & D.B. Bastawade (1988): A new Schizomid from the Indian state of Maharashtra, with additional comments on eyed Schizomids (Arachnida: Schizomida). Insect Mound, USA 2(2): 90-96. Cockendolpher, J. & N. Tsurusaki ( 1 994): Review of the Schizomidae of Japan and Taiwan. Bull. natl. Sci. Mus. Tokyo, Ser. A 14(4): 159-171. Fernando, E.F. (1957): A new species of Schizomus ( Trithyreus ) from Ceylon (Sri Lanka). Annls. Mag. nat. Hist. 10(12): 13-16. Gravely, F.H. (1911a): The species of Ceylon (Sri Lanka) Pedipalpi. Spolia Zeylanica 7: 135-140. Gravely, F.H. (1911b): Notes on Pedipalpi in the collections EN C E S of the Indian Museum. Rec. Indian Mus. 6: 33-38. Gravely, F.H. ( 1 9 1 2): Notes on Pedipalpi in the collections of the Indian Museum. Rec. Indian Mus. 7: 101-110. Gravely, F.H. (1915): Notes on the Pedipalpi in the collections of the Indian Museum V, Tartarides (= Schizomida) collected by Mr. B.H. Buxton in Ceylon (Sri Lanka) and Malaya peninsula. Rec. Indian Mus. 77:383-386. Gravely, F.H. (1925): Tartarides (= Schizomida) from Siju caves, Garo Hills, Assam (now Meghalaya). Rec. Indian Mus. 26: 61-62. Pocock, R.I. (1900): The Fauna of British India, including Ceylon and Burma. Arachnida, London: Taylor and Francis, xii + 299 pp. Reddell, J.R. & J.C. Cockendolpher (1985): Redescription of Trithyreus grassi (Thorell) (Arachnida: Schizomida). Oriental Ins. 18: 43-52. Reddell, J.R. & J.C. Cockendolpher (1991): Redescription of Schizomus crass icaudatus (Picard-Cambridge) (Sri Lanka) — with a description of a new species of Hubadia from California (Arachnida: Schizomida: Hubadidae) Pearce-Sellard Series No. 47: 1-24. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 95 A NEW SPECIES OF DESMODIUM DESVAUX., FABACEAE, FROM GARHWAL HIMALAYA, UTTARANCHAL, INDIA1 L.R. Dangwal and R.D. Gaur2 ( With one text-figure) Key words: Desmodium garhwalensis sp. nov., D. elegans DC., Fabaceae, Nauti, Chamoli District, trekking route, Garhwal Himalaya, Uttaranchal During the field survey and plant explorations in the remote localities of the Garhwal Himalaya (NW Himalaya) the authors collected some interesting specimens of the genus Desmodium Desvaux (Fabaceae) from Nauti (Chamoli District), Uttaranchal, from the scrub jungles along trekking routes. Thorough study of the literature and comparison of the specimens of the regional Herbaria housed at the Botanical Survey of India, Northern Circle (BSD) and Forest Research Institute (DD), Dehra Dun, indicate distinct differences between D. garhwalensis sp. nov. and D. elegans DC. In the course of survey and plant collection in the remote localities of the Garhwal Himalaya (NW Himalaya), the authors came across some interesting specimens of the genus Desmodium Desvaux. These were collected from Nauti above Karnaprayag (Chamoli district), from the scrub jungle along trekking routes. Scrutiny of the literature as well as comparison of the specimens with those of the Herbaria Botanical Survey of India, Northern Circle (BSD), and Forest Research Institute (DD), Dehra Dun, indicated distinct features, suggesting a new species, closely allied to Desmodium elegans DC. Desmodium garhwalensis sp. nov. Dangwal et Gaur Desmodium eleganti DC. proxime affine, differt caule glabrescenti dilute brunneo, ramulisque vix piloso; foliis 3. 0-7.0 cm longis (petiolo incluso); foliolis terminalibus c. 5.0 x 3.0 cm, supra atro-viridis, tegetes formantes pilis sericeis albis, infra dilute viridis, parum pilosis in nervis; petiolo 1 .5-2.0 cm longo; petiolulo 0.5- 1 Accepted November, 1999 2Herbarium and Plant Systematics Laboratory, Department of Botany, Post Box No. 1 7. H.N.B. Garhwal University, Srinagar (Garhwal) 246 174, Uttaranchal, India. 1.0 cm longo; inflorescentia 5.0-12.0 cm longa; floribus c. 2. 0-6.0 mm longis; bracteis linearibus, 1. 0- 2.0 mm longis; leguminibus stipitatis, c. 1.0- 2.0 x 0. 1-0.2 cm, sericeis brunneis, 2-8 articulatis, leguminis articulo constricto (1.0 mm lato); segmentis simplicibus, c. 2.0 mm longis, seminibus dilute luteis ad atro-luteis, c. 2.0 x 1.0 mm. Frutices decidui dilute brunnei glabrescentes, usque ad 2.0 m longi; rami vix pilosi. Folia trifoliata, c. 3. 0-7.0 cm longa (petiolo incluso); foliola orbicularia, ovata ad obovata, obtusa ad acuminata, foliola terminalia 3. 0- 5.0 x 2. 5-3.0 cm, foliola lateralia interdum obliqua, 2. 0-2. 5 x 1. 5-2.0 cm, supra atro-viridia, pilis sericeis albis tegetes formantes, infra dilute viridia, parum pilosa in nervis. Petiolus 1. 5-2.0 cm longus; petiolulus 0.5- 1.0 cm longus, puberulus. Stipula lanceolata, acuminata, usque ad 3.0 mm longa. Inflorescentia axillaris termi- nalisve paniculata racemosa, c. 5.0-12.0 cm longa. Flores purpurei, c. 6.0 mm longi. Pedicellus c. 3.0 mm longus, puberulus. Bracteae lineares, 1. 0-2.0 mm longae; bracteolae parvae. Calyx c. 3.0 mm longus puberulus; dentes tubo parviores, cum bracteis bracteolisque persistentibus. Corolla purpurea; vexillum ovatum ad obovoideum, emarginatum, c. 6.0 mm longum, ala plumosa, c. 6.0 mm longa; carina breviter rostrata, plumosa, c. 6.0 mm longa. 96 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 NEW DESCRIPTIONS Stamina diadelpha (9+1), stamen vexillare liberum, c. 5.0 mm longum; antherae dithecae. Gynaecium c. 5.0 mm longum; ovarium stipitatum pilosum; stylus breviter curvatus, glaber; stigma capitatum. Legumina stipitata, 1. 0-2.0 x 0.1 -0.2 cm, sericea brunnea, 2-8 articulata, leguminis articuli constricti inter semina, (c. 1.0 mm lata), articulus simplicibus c. 2.0 mm longus. Semina dilute flava ad saturate flava, c. 2. 0-1.0 mm. I^pus: Nauti, Chamoli district, Garhwal Himalaya, Uttaranchal, 900 m, 12.x. 1998, L.R. Dangwal, 135 12 A (Holotypus - GUH); Ibid , L.R. Dangwal, 13512 B (Isotypus - GUH). Desmodium garhwalensis sp. nov. Dangwal et. Gaur (Fig.l: A-J,) The new species is closely allied to Desmodium elegans DC., a comparison of both the taxa is given hereunder: Desmodium elegans DC. Desmodium garhwalensis sp. nov. Dangwal et. Gaur 1 . Stem glabrous, brown in colour, branches densely hairy. Stem glabrescent, light brown in colour, branches scarcely hairy. 2. Leaves c. 7.0-15.0 cm long (including petiole). Leaves c. 3. 0-7.0 cm long (including petiole). 3. Terminal leaflets c. 7.5 x 5.0 cm, upper side brown, scarcely pubescent on nerves, underside green, matted with white silky pubescent hairs. Terminal leaflets c. 5.0 x 3.0 cm, upper side dark green, matted with white silky pubescent hairs, underside light green, slightly pubescent on nerves. 4. Petiole c. 4. 0-7. 5 cm long; petiolule c. 1. 5-2.0 cm long. Petiole c. 1. 5-2.0 cm long; petiolule c. 0.5- 1.0 cm long. 5. Inflorescence c. 15-30 cm long; flowers c. 6.0-12.0 mm long. Inflorescence c. 5.0-12.0 cm long; flowers c. 2. 0-6.0 mm long. 6. Pods sessile to subsessile, c. 5. 5-7. 5cm x 0. 5-0.6 cm, 5-10 jointed; joint of pods not constricted, c. 2. 0-3.0 mm wide; articles sometimes ‘U’ shaped, glabrous, 6. 0-7.0 mm long. Pods stalked, c. 1.0-2.0x0.1 0.2 cm, 2-8 jointed; joint of pods constricted, c. 1.0 mm wide; articles simple, silky brown, c. 2.0 mm long. 7. Seeds light brown to black in colour, c. 3.0 x 2.0 mm Seeds light yellow to dark yellow in colour, c. 2.0 x 1.0 mm. Deciduous, light brown glabrescent shrubs, up to 2 m long; branches scarcely hairy. Leaves trifoliate, c. 3. 0-7.0 cm long (including petiole); leaflets orbicular, ovate to obovate, obtuse to acuminate, terminal leaflets 3. 0-5.0 x 2. 5-3.0 cm, lateral leaflets sometimes oblique, 2. 0-2. 5 x 1.5- 2.0 cm, upper side dark green, matted with white silky pubescent hairs, underside light green, JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 97 NEW DESCRIPTIONS cm Fig. 1: Desmodium garhwalensis sp. nov., A. Flowering and Fruiting branch, B. Flower with bract and bracteoles, C. Calyx, D. Vexillum, E-E,. Wing, F-Fr Keel, G. Stamens, H. Gynaecium, I. Pod, J-Jr Seed 98 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR 2002 NEW DESCRIPTIONS slightly pubescent on nerves. Petiole 1. 5-2.0 cm long; petiolule 0. 5-1.0 cm long, minutely pubescent. Stipules lanceolate, acuminate, up to 3.0 mm long. Inflorescence axillary terminal, panicled racemes, c. 5.0-12.0 cm long. Flowers purple, c. 6.0 mm long. Pedicel c. 3.0 nun long, minutely pubescent. Bracts linear, 1. 0-2.0 mm long; bracteoles small. Calyx c. 3.0 mm long, minutely hairy; teeth smaller than tube with persistent bract and bracteoles. Corolla purple; vexillum ovate to obovoid, emarginate, c. 6.0 mm long; wing feathery, c. 6.0 mm long; keel shortly beaked, feathery, c. 6.0 mm long. Stamens diadelphous (9+1), vexillary stamen free, c. 5.0 mm long; anthers dithecous. Gynaecium c. 5.0 mm long; ovary stipitate, hairy; style shortly curved, glabrous; stigma capitate. Pods stalked, 1. 0-2.0 x 0.1 -0.2 cm, silky brown; 2-8 jointed, joint of pods constricted between the seeds (c. 1 .0 mm wide); articles simple, c. 2.0 mm long. Seeds light yellow to dark yellow in colour, c. 2.0 x 1 .0 mm. FI. & Fr.: September-December. Remarks: In dry places along roadside and scrub jungles, associated with Berberis asiatica , Carissa opaca, Indigofera atropurpurea and Rubus ellipticus. Etymology: The plant species is named after the type locality Garhwal Himalaya. Acknowledgements We thank Dr. N.C. Majumdar, ex-Scientist ‘SE’ Botanical Survey of India, Kolkata, for the Latin translation of the taxon and the authorities of Botanical Survey of India, Northern Circle (BSD), Dehra Dun and Forest Research Institute (DD), Dehra Dun for herbarium facilities. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 99 REVIEWS 1. SAVING WILD TIGERS, edited by Valmik Thapar, 2001. Published by Permanent Black, New Delhi. Pp. 411. Price not stated. During the last one hundred years, the tiger has travelled a long journey from a ‘pest’ t0 an endangered species, and from being the main target of hunters to that of photographers, and now it is also the main target of writers. Perhaps no other Indian animal has been written about as much as the tiger. Valmik Thapar, the editor of this book, has himself written eight books on tigers! I have read most of his books, but never had an uneasy feeling as while reading this book. After a 6-page banal introduction, we are treated to 33 articles, the first being that by Sainthill Eardley-Wilmot, Inspector General of Forests and the last by P.K. Sen, present Director of Project Tiger. The illustrations in these two articles symbolize the tragedy and indignity that the tiger has suffered during the last 100 years. While Eardley-Wilmot is shown standing proudly in front of three slain tigers and one leopard, Sen is counting tiger bones! Is this all that will be left of this grand animal? Valmik has selected some good writers who have made an impact on tiger protection. I particularly liked the article by E.P. Gee, Richard Perry, Kailash Sankhala and Charles McDougal. The selection of illustrations/pictures could have been better. We are treated to an article “An Appeal for the Preservation of WildLife” by Stanley Jepson with his wife sitting on a large, handsome, slain tiger, and the author-hunter proudly sitting with his gun on a sloth bear, and his hat disdainfully placed over the head of another sloth bear. The vehicle in the background with five Indians who must have helped Jepson in this slaughter, portrays the tragedy of Indian wildlife in bygone days. Even the more contemporary picture printed with Melvin Sunquist’s article “Radio-tracking the Tiger (p. 197) looks out of place. What is he doing with the gun, even if it is a tranquilizing gun? A picture of a radio-collared tiger would have been more appropriate. Besides the inappropriate pictures, the quality of printing leaves much to be desired. Most of the pictures are very dark, and the ink smudges if you touch them. Perhaps the publisher “Permanent Black” wanted to leave a permanent impression, on the fingers, even after one put down the book. Et al ., meaning ‘and others’, is a Latin phrase that most authors do not know how and where to use. If there are three or more than three authors, the name of the first author is followed by et al. It is used only in text for brevity, but in the reference section, all the names are cited, even if there are 20 authors. I was surprised to see John Seidensticker et al. (p. 341) and Sarah Christie et al. (p. 373) in the title of the chapters. Full names of all the authors should have been given. If we overlook these drawbacks, saving wild tigers is an interesting book. E.P. Gee’s writing in 1964, in his famous book the wildlife of india, talks about India’s burgeoning human population “This increase is by far the greatest threat to wild animals...”. This was written when India’s population was 440 million. Now we are more than a billion and demographic prediction indicates that our population may stabilize only at 1.4 to 1.5 billion — a billion more than at Gee’s time. Fortunately, his prophecy has not come true yet , but will we be able say this with surety in AD 2100? I am afraid that future generations will write that farsighted people like Valmik Thapar made attempts to save wild tigers, but failed as all the tigerland was occupied by human beings. ■ ASAD R. RAHMANI 100 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 REVIEWS 2. LIFE’S DEVICES: THE PHYSICAL WORLD OF ANIMALS AND PLANTS by Steven Vogel. Universities Press (India) Ltd., Distributed by Orient Longman. © Princeton Press 1988. Pp 368 (16 x 24 cm). Rs 275/- Did you ever think of a link between Venturi tubes and prairie dogs, or a leaf and its petiole as a cantilever beam? Read about how sponges use tiny, stiff spicules in an easily bent collagenous meshwork to produce their own brand of reinforced concrete. It occurs to you as you digest this, how basically similar that is to the dry straw and mud plaster used in Indian villages to this day! This book is about physical phenomena in the biological world, and the author has picked several living functions of animal bodies to demonstrate some very basic physical principles. The book is like an illustrated walk through nature, helping us to make sense of the links between biology and physics, beyond the simple hinge joints and ball and socket joints that we are already familiar with. An interesting example is that of the physical principles affecting the mating of hawkmoths. The structure of the male hawkmoth’s large feather shaped antennae is such that it is intended to pick up the attractant pheromones released by the females located miles away. The author demonstrates how problems of air viscosity and diffusion affect the air flowing past or through the antennae. The result is that less than 18% of the approaching air stream is actually able to flow through and make contact with the chemoreceptors on the male’s antennae, 70% of which are dedicated to this vital task alone. Thus, we fully appreciate the incredible sensitivity of this system that overcomes the vast distance between prospective pairs of moths. Steven Vogel has explained all the terminology of physics in the earlier chapters, and as he proceeds, the work increasingly revolves around its biological focal point instead. I found my 30 years old memory of junior college physics not quite adequate to grasp the fascinating demonstrations of physical principles as applied to living creatures. The book will help to remove from our minds deeply ingrained artificial dockets where we try to file away information in “subjects”, Physics, Mechanics, Dynamics, Physical Chemistry, as separate from Biology. The author’s literary bent of mind shows in the text, particularly in this line on page 101. “The surface of a liquid is like the brow of a thinker - a perturbation wrinkles it into waves”. Also in the delightful quotations used for chapter headings. “Blood is thicker than water” is Sir Walter Scott’s comment on viscosity! Unfortunately, the very first one, on page 3, “Throw physic to the dogs, I’ll none o’ it” [Shakespeare, Macbeth] does not quite fit. For Macbeth, physic meant what we call medicine or a drug, not physics in the sense of the book under review. On page 3 also, I found the only typographical error worth mentioning, as it spoils the first taste of a book, so important to decide how far to read on: though instead of through. You will enjoy Vogel’s delightful turn of phrase, so important to a popular science writer as well as to a lecturer: quote “The fall of an elephant is a matter of the utmost gravity”. And you may overcome an antipathy to explore the mystifying territory beyond “purely biological” writing as I did. In all, a delightful, contemporary, ‘need of the hour’ title. m GAYATRI UGRA JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 101 REVIEWS 3. BIRDS OF PUNE, Kaipavriksh in collaboration with Centre for Environment Education, Ahmedabad, 2001 . Pp 136. Price Rs. 50. Besides Usha Ganguli’s book birds of the delhi region, birds of pune is perhaps the only book on birds of any district or city. It is interesting to know that 23 people and two institutes collaborated to bring out this small and beautifully designed book of 1 36 pages, profusely illustrated with black and white and colour illustrations. Out of the 400 species reported from Pune district, 1 00 common species are described in easy colloquial language. The book is for amateurs, so the birds are classified as ‘Brightly Coloured Birds’, ‘Muted Coloured Birds’, ‘Sober Yet Smart’ (whatever that may mean), ‘Long- legged Birds’. ‘Birds with Prominent Bills’ so on and so forth. I do not know the efficacy of such a classification, especially when ‘brightly coloured birds’ are shown in black and white! Interestingly, even the pitch black jungle crow is included under ‘brightly coloured’ birds. While it is a lovingly smart bird, by no stretch of the imagination can it be considered as colourful. The chapter ‘The Fun of Bird watching’ is fun to read with good tips on birdwatching. ‘Bird Identification Step by Step’ is also well written. CEE should bring out this chapter in the form of a small booklet or a brochure for wider circulation, because the tips are valid for any region. For serious bird watchers looking for good birding areas in Pune district, important sites are described, some even with maps. A checklist consisting of 400 species recorded in Pune district makes this book valuable for science. Stray or unusual records (e.g. Grey Hypocolius sighting in Valvan dam, Lonavla) are also included. Some of these records deserve publication in the Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society. Most of the colour illustrations are accurate, except the crow-pheasant in Plate K. The wings and back are both rufous in this bird, but the book shows it with a black back. The importance of the book is enhanced by information such as habitat-wise birding areas of Pune, references for further reading, newsletters and magazines for birdwatchers, bird call audio-cassettes and birdwatching organizations in Pune. Citizens of Pune, quirkily called Pune-ites, are lucky that they have experienced ornithologists like Prakash Gole and Anil Mahabal, photographers like Saleel Tambe and organizations like Kaipavriksh and Centre for Environment Education who joined hands to bring out an interesting book. ■ ASAD R. RAHMANI 102 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY 99(1), APR. 2002 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 1 . HIGH-TENSION ELECTRIC POLES USED AS NIGHT ROOST BY TROOPS OF HANUMAN LANGUR PRESBYTES ENTELLUS AT NAHARGARH WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, JAIPUR A 1 32 kw high-tension electric line passes through the Nahargarh Wildlife Sanctuary, Jaipur. At night, electric poles of this line are used as roosting sites by the Hanuman langurs Presbytes entellus. There are three troops of langurs, which keep to the eastern part of the Sanctuary. They either roost on the roof and cornices of the three old multistoried shikar (hunting) towers or on poles of high-tension electric line. It was also observed that they regularly change their roosting sites. Anogeissus pendula, the main tree species of the Sanctuary, generally does not grow very tall in nature, and is hence never used for night roosting. However, some tall trees of Holoptelia integrifolia are sometimes used for roosting. Leopard ( Panthera pardus ) is the main predator of langurs in the Nahargarh Sanctuary. Perhaps to avoid the attack of leopard at night, troops of langurs prefer safer night roosts like the top of buildings and high-tension electric poles. February 7, 2001 SATISH KUMAR SHARMA Range Forest Officer, Phulwari Wildlife Sanctuary, Kotra 307 025, District Udaipur, Rajasthan, India. 2. ABNORMAL WEIGHT AND LENGTH * OF THE INDIAN PANGOLIN MANIS CRASSICAUDATA GRAY, 1827, FROM SIROHI DISTRICT, RAJASTHAN On September 5, 2000, an Indian pangolin ( Manis crassicaudata Gray) was seen in the campus of the J.K. Cement factory near Banas railway station in Sirohi district of Rajasthan State. Since the animal was not safe in the factory campus, it was captured with the help of local forest officers and transferred to the Zoological Garden, Jaipur. At the Zoo, the full grown male was thoroughly checked by the zoo veterinarian, and its weight and length were recorded as below, and are compared with Prater ( 1 980) and Roberts (1997) in Table 1. Table 1 BODY MEASUREMENTS OF PANGOLIN CAUGHT FROM SIROHI DISTRCT COMPARED WITH PRATER ( 1 980) AND ROBERTS (1997) Parameters Recorded/ Referred by Roberts (1997) Recorded/ Recorded at Referred by Zoological Prater ( 1 980) Garden, Jaipur 1. Body Weight 11.3-17.17 kg 2. Total body - 32.2 kg length 122 cm 105-120 cm 170 cm It is evident from Table 1 that the specimen caught from Sirohi district is of abnormal weight and length, which is worth placing on record. The specimens measured by Prater and Roberts may have been immature. Since the food habits of pangolin are peculiar, and its rearing is not an easy job in captivity, the pangolin was safely released in its natural habitat. Acknowledgements I am grateful to R.G. Soni, PCCF & CCF (WL), U.M. Sahai, CF, M.R.Punia, Dy. CWLW, Dr. B.B.L. Mathur, Zoo veterinarian for facilities. February 7, 2001 SATISH KUMAR SHARMA Range Forest Officer, Phulwari Wildlife Sanctuary, Kotra 307 025, District Udaipur, Rajasthan, India. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 103 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES References Prater, S.H. (1980): The Book of Indian Animals. Bombay Roberts, TJ. (1997): The Mammals of Pakistan. Oxford Natural History Society, Bombay. Pp. 302. University Press, Karachi, Pakistan. Pp. 131. *It must be noted that these are measurements of skins and not of live animals or measurements taken before skinning. — Eds 3. SCAVENGING BY STRIPENECKED MONGOOSE HERP ESTES VITTICOLLIS ON A TIGER KILL IN PERIYAR TIGER RESERVE, KERALA On October 17, 2000, around 1730 hrs, we were observing a three-day old sambar ( Cervus unicolor) stag carcass, partially eaten by tiger, by the lake at Manakavala area of the Periyar Tiger Reserve. First an osprey ( Pandion haliaetus) was seen feeding on the kill. Later, a wild pig ( Sus scrofa) approached the kill, fed on it for about 10 minutes and then suddenly bolted. After about half an hour, a stripenecked mongoose (Herpes tes vitticollis) came to the kill and started eating. It entered the open belly and remained inside for about five minutes. Then it withdrew into the bushes, but returned after half an hour with another stripenecked mongoose. They came near the kill, but immediately turned around and ran into the bushes. Stripenecked mongoose is frequently seen in Periyar Tiger Reserve. However, scavenging by the species is being reported for the first time. In fact, nothing much is known about the feeding habits of the species, even though it is frequently seen in other areas of the Western Ghats. February 20, 200 1 BABY SAJAN A.VEERAMANI Periyar Tiger Reserve, Thekkady, Kerala 685 536, India. 4. NOTES ON THE FOOD HABITS OF STRIPED HYENA HYAENA HYAENA LINN. 1758 IN SARISKA TIGER RESERVE, RAJASTHAN Though the striped hyena Hyaena hyaena is widely distributed in India (Prater 1980), information on its status, distribution and ecology is meagre. Hyenas are known to be scavengers, but occasionally they carry off live sheep and goats, and quite often stray dogs (Prater 1980). Between July 1988 and December 1990, 26 hyena scats were collected from Sariska Tiger Reserve, Rajasthan (76° 17'-76° 34' N; 27° 5’-27° 33' E). The scats were washed in a sieve and oven dried at 60 °C. At least 20 hairs were taken from each scat (Mukherjee et al. 1994) and examined under a microscope. Identification of prey species was based on medullary pattern of hair as described by Moore et al. (1974). Except one, all the scats contained single prey species. Chital (Axis axis) remains were found in 35% of the scats, followed by domestic cattle Bos indicus (17%), goat (14%), nilgai Boselaphus tragocamelus (14%) and rufoustailed hare Lepus nigricollis ruficaudatus (7%). The remains of an unidentified bird, an unidentified rodent and fruit of Zizyphus mauritiana were found in 13% of hyena scats. Chital, nilgai and domestic cattle remains found in hyena scats are likely to come from predation or scavenging. February 1 3, 200 1 K. SANKAR BHARAT JETHWA Wildlife Institute of India, P. O. Box #18, Chandrabani, Dehra Dun 248 001, Uttaranchal, India. 104 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES References Moore, T.D., L.E. Spence & C.E. Dungnole (1974): Identification of the dorsal guard hairs of some mammals of Wyoming. Hepworth, W.G. (ed.), Wyoming Game and Fish Department, Wyoming. 1 77 pp. Mukherjee, S., S.P.Goyal & R. Chellam (1994): Standardisation of scat analysis techniques for leopard (Panthera pardus ) in Gir National Park, Western India. Mammalia 58(1): 139-143. Prater, S.H. ( 1 980): The Book of Indian Animals. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay. 324 pp. 5. ATTITUDES TOWARDS WILDLIFE CONSERVATION IN RANCHI DISTRICT — A CASE STUDY Participation of people in land use decisions is a new and inspiring concept in Protected Area (PA) Management. Conservation of wildlife requires the cooperation and goodwill of the people living in and around the wildlife habitat. But adopting these concepts implies a fundamental shift away from the traditional approaches to protection and it cannot, therefore, be expected to determine management practice overnight (Berkmuller 1986). Even dedicated Protected Area Managers who have successfully protected their PA against tremendous odds, against the opposition of the locals and at great personal risk, are not easily convinced by this concept. All said and done, the conflict with the locals continues to draw the attention of managers in most of India’s protected areas. The situation is getting more complex with the passage of time and factors like population explosion. Lack of resources, both man and material, are a major hindrance to the effective management of a PA, but the most important factor is the attitude of the locals towards conservation. It is not necessary that people living near predators invariably have a negative attitude towards them. Respondents to a questionnaire in Alaska, for example, had the most positive perceptions of the wolf in a survey undertaken across states in the USA. People with a positive attitude to predators indicate greater interest in protecting wildlife and natural habitats (Kellert 1985). It is difficult to take conservation action which runs against the general beliefs or attitudes of the local people, and most decisions are influenced by attitudes rather than rational considerations. Values and attitudes are rooted in personal experience and upbringing. The study area chosen was Karra CD Block of Ranchi district, with block headquarters situated around 30 km west from Ranchi town. Karra CD Block, one of the 20 CD Blocks of the district is badly affected by human-wildlife conflict particularly involving elephants and bears, as is evident from the number of deaths, injury, crop and house damage caused by wildlife as recorded by the Forest Department. To investigate the levels of awareness about wildlife conservation and allied aspects, and to find out the attitudes of the people, a questionnaire survey was undertaken in the study area. 148 individuals from 25 villages of Karra CD Block, answered the questionnaire. Information regarding their age, ethnic status, literacy, profession was also gathered (Tables 1 & 2). Awareness scores were grouped as high, medium and low, while attitude scores were grouped as positive, neutral and negative. The results from the questionnaires were analysed as follows: Answer to questions testing the attitudes and awareness were graded 1,-1 and 0, depending on the level of the answer given by the respondent i.e. score of 1 given to positive, -1 given to negative and 0 to neutral. The points for the answers were summed to get an attitude and awareness score. To test the Null Hypothesis, i.e. to determine if the central locations of JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 105 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Table 1 AGE STRUCTURE AND ETHNIC COMPOSITION MATRIX OF THE RESPONDENTS Ethnic Group (No.) Age (in Years) S.C. S.T. Others Total <20 6 20 11 37 21-30 2 19 9 30 31-40 3 14 6 23 41-50 9 2 11 >50 6 28 13 47 Total 17 90 41 148 S.C .= Scheduled Caste; S.T .= Scheduled Tribe Table 2 LITERACY LEVEL AND THE ETHNIC COMPOSITION OF RESPONDENTS Ethnic Group Literacy level S.T. Other than S.T. Total Literate 41 38 79 Illiterate 49 20 69 Total 90 58 148 S.T .= Scheduled Tribe distributions of the two populations (Awareness and Attitude) are the same, it is assumed that their population distributions are identical. In such cases, the Mann- Whitney U test was used for testing the Null Hypothesis. Scores were compared by Mann-Whitney U test and the number of respondents in the different categories were compared by Chi-square test. Difference between attitudes scores and awareness scores was calculated as U = 3224 and P = 1. The significant difference between these two scores indicates that the central locations of the attitudes and awareness among the people towards wildlife conservation were identical. The tribals comprised 60.8% of the respondents and non-tribals 39.2%. To test another Null Hypothesis that attitudes and awareness do not depend on literacy ethnicity, the Chi-square test was used. Fewer tribals (45%) were literate compared to non-tribals (65%) (X2=5.65, d.f.=l). Greater literacy among non- tribals influenced their attitudes and awareness about wild animals than tribals (x2=T3.98, d.f.= 2, x2 9.78, d.f.=2). There is a weak but significant positive correlation between attitude scores and awareness scores (r=0.18 P>0.05, n=148) of respondents. From the above analysis, it can be concluded that the attitude and awareness amongst the villagers towards wildlife conservation are significantly different. Individuals from the scheduled tribe (ST) had lower attitude and awareness scores towards wildlife conservation issues than non ST individuals. This probably is due to their lower literacy level. Further, it was observed that literacy directly influences the attitudes and awareness of the villagers towards wildlife conservation. January 10, 2001 H.S. GUPTA Divisional Forest Officer Research and Evaluation Division, RO. Doranda, Ranchi 834 002 Chattisgarh, India. References Berkmuller, K. (1986): Attitude Barriers to eco- Kellert, S.R. (1985): Public perceptions of predators, development and People’s Participation. The Indian particularly the wolf and the coyote. Biol. Cons. Forester. Pp. 949-952. 3/; 167-189. 6. SOME CLARIFICATIONS REGARDING THE LESSER FLAMINGO PHOENICOPTERUS MINOR AND THE CRAB PLOVER DROMAS ARDEOLA Concerning the lesser flamingo Sambhar Lake. This is wrong — the main Phoenicopterus minor Geoffroy, the impression breeding and later dispersal centre is the Little one would gain is that the main stronghold is Rann of Kutch where a huge colony bred 106 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 99(1), APR. 2002 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES successfully in 1998. Its breeding in the area was suspected for long and first confirmed by Vora of the Gujarat Forest Department. Nesting had been reported earlier by Salim Ali and Shivrajkumar in the Great Rann, alongside the greater flamingoes Phoenicopterus ruber Linn. There are immense flocks during winter in salt pans around Saurashtra. I was shown these in the Bhavnagar salt pans and similar huge flocks at Hathat further west on exposed tidal flats by Dharmakumarsinhji. Also, a massive flock spends much of the year at Porbandar on the west coast of Saurashtra, where a special sanctuary has been declared in the city! I was the first to report a largish flock in Chilka during the survey I conducted for BNHS with P.B. Shekhar. This has been reported in the JBNHS (Khacher, 1966, 63: 290-297) I remember Dharmakumarsinhji and us — Shivrajkumar and myself — considering the huge flocks along the Saurashtra coast as coming from East Africa. Now I suspect there is an Indian population centered on Gujarat and dispersing widely across the Subcontinent east to Lake Chilka and south to Pt. Calimere. I would not be surprised if this flamingo is commoner in Sindh and also reaches the saline lakes of Baluchistan rather more frequently than believed. To end on a rather personal note, the large flocks of crab plovers Dromas ardeola Paykull were “discovered” by me first in December, 1 969 when the Jam Saheb had organized a boat trip for me. I have referred to this in my account of The Birds of Gujarat’ JBNHS 93(3): 331-373. From what T.J. Roberts writes, he has gained the impression that the discovery was made by Dharmakumarsinhji, whom I showed a very large flock, v/hich he photographed, near Ghargha south of Bhavnagar. This was the first time he realised that crab plovers were not uncommon. Interestingly, Grimmett and the Inskipps (2000) in their birds of the Indian subcontinent have not shown crab plovers occurring in the Gujarat section of the seacoast, though they have mentioned the birds having “traditional roosts” and state that they are “mainly crepuscular and usually very wary.” They do not have roosting sites, but like all inter-tidal mudflat waders, they collect on a beach or near an inundated shoal as the water rises. All the birds of a flock of a particular reef get restricted to one point. Should the reef get entirely submerged, as often happens during spring tides, the flock flies in low, swift direct flight across the open water to some nearby island, where it might happen that another flock has been pushed together by the water. Interestingly, crab plover never go behind sand dunes to rest during high tide on open mud flats, as other waders do. They will skirt headlands along the surf or fly across open water. They are certainly not crepuscular and, particularly when resting at high tide, they are ridiculously confiding, allowing very close approach as Dharmakumarsinhji had done to shoot his first photograph of the flock at Ghoga. They feed between the high tide marks, day and night. In birds of Pakistan, T.J. Roberts writes “In Pakistan it occurs very sparsely along the Mekran coast and occasionally in the Indus Delta, but it seems likely that numbers pass through on migration to wintering grounds in the Rann of Kutch”. They do not winter in either the Great or the Little Rann of Kachhch, but do so largely in the Gulf of Kachhch, where the total numbers on all the tidal mudflats and coral mangrove islands must be far greater than the 2,500 and 5,000 “revealed” by the 1984 Oxford University expedition to the Gulf of Kachhch. This clarification is needed so that it does not get repeated again and again, as indeed observations on the birds’ crespuscular habits and wary disposition have been. October 1 3, 1 999 LAVKUMAR KHACHER 646, Vastunirman, Gandhinagar 382 022, Gujarat, India. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 107 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 7. OCCURRENCE OF GALLOPERDIX SPP., FAMILY PHASIANIDAE IN NORTHWESTERN MADHYA PRADESH M.K. Ranjitsinh (. JBNHS , 96(2): 314) referred to the occurrence of the painted spurfowl {Galloperdix lunulata Valenciennes) in a few places in Rajasthan and asked whether it is sighted in the forests of northwestern Madhya Pradesh. I have seen it on at least six occasions between 1992 and 1997 in Madhav National Park (78° 15'-78° 30' E and 24° 50’-25° 55' N) in Shivpuri district. This park has northern Dry Deciduous Mixed Type forest and two lakes. The painted spurfowl was always sighted in the forest on the slopes along the muram, road near the banks of Sakhya Sagar lake in an area where there is an iron bridge between the points known as Landing Station Nos. 3 and 5. On the eastern side of Sakhya Sagar there is a dam wall. The water seeps through the bottom of the wall round the year, flowing in a drainlike channel through the dense undergrowth towards the second lake, Madhav. In this area, the red spurfowl (G. spadicea) is seen frequently. In 1996, the painted spurfowl was sighted in Palpur-Kuno Sanctuary about half a kilometre away from Kuno river and Kuno Dak Bungalow along the Pohri-Sheopur road in Morena district. These two species have been regularly seen in northwestern Madhya Pradesh. February 23, 2000 RAJIV SAXENA MIG-853, Darpan Colony, Thatipur, Gwalior 474 Oil, Madhya Pradesh, India. 8. OBSERVATIONS ON THE MATING BEHAVIOUR OF THE INDIAN SARUS CRANE GRUS ANTIGONE ANTIGONE IN THE WILD ( With four text-figures) Reproductive behaviour is a typical sequence of behaviour, which includes courtship, copulation, egg laying, incubation, rearing and parental care. The breeding behaviour of various cranes has been studied widely, in captivity and in the wild (Johnsgard 1983, Van Ee 1966, Sauey 1976, Tacha 1981, Masatomi 1983, Masatomi and Kitagawa 1975, Voss 1976 and Tao and Peixun 1991). Except for general courtship display and mating of the Indian sarus crane Grus antigone antigone (Ali and Ripley 1983, Walkinshaw 1973, Gole 1987) sequential behaviour leading to mating is not described. This paper is a preliminary study of reproductive behavioural patterns observed and recorded in the field. The obserservations are divided into three stages: 1. Duetting 2. Dancing and 3. Copulation. This study was carried out in the agricultural landscape of Matar tehsil of Kheda district, Gujarat. Matar tehsil has more open vegetation than the other nine tehsils of Kheda district. The climate is semiarid, tropical monsoon type. Southwest monsoon arrives in the third week of June and continues till September end. The average monthly maximum temperature ranged between 41.8° C in May and 27.0° C in December. Average monthly minimum temperature ranged between 11.3° C in January and 26.4° C in July. Average annual rainfall of the district is 840 mm. Paddy and pearl millet are the major cereals grown in the monsoon (kharif crops). The sarus cranes in flock or family were observed throughout the breeding period from Jul.-Nov. 1997 and 1998 in the wild. Five pairs 108 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES were observed in detail using a telescope (20x), photographed and sketched. Each pair was observed from a vertical distance of 300 m. Other pairs with interrupted reproductive behaviour were also studied when they entered the scanned area. The behavioural responses of both sexes need not always leads to successful mating. As reported in case of Grus japonensis (Masatomi and Kitagawa 1975) the process is often interrupted by factors like age, sexual maturity, pair bond and to some extent the surrounding habitat. The cranes dispersed widely, forming a large, isolated territory. The following stages were observed: 1 . Duetting: Duetting was exhibited by the pair, and display by a single crane was rarely observed. The pair generally called in unison as a part of duetting. The male first gave a note followed by 2-3 shorter notes by the female. This unit ‘Ml + F2-3’ was repeated in succession. It was observed that duetting of a pair may provoke the same response in its neighboring pair. The cranes were seen duetting in different postures, however, the head of both the sexes was always held high; wings semi-closed, closed, or obliquely raised, sometimes drooping (Fig. 1). 2. Dancing: A crane in grazing posture stoops with retracted neck, sometimes spreading its wings, and makes a bouncing movement. It leaps up to a few metres above the ground. Fig. 1: Inter individual posture observed during duetting (Du) of the Indian sarus crane, Semiclosed-wing duetting (Du,), Closed-wing duetting (Du2), Obliquely-raised wing duetting (Du3), Drooped wing duetting (Du4) JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 109 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Fig. 2: Inter individual postures during dancing (Da) of the Indian sarus crane; Stooping (Da,), Stooping (Da2), Pre-leaping (Da3), Leaping (Da4), Leaping (Da5), Floating (Da6), Rushing (Da?), Picking-up (Dag), Throwing (Da9), Turning (Da10) Floating down, it momentarily flaps the wings, and the legs are bent parallel to the body. The male often chases the female while dancing, which ultimately ends in calling vigorously or becoming ready for mounting. A peculiar throwing movement was seen when a dancing crane suddenly bowed its neck up and down several times, immediately picked up a plant from the ground and threw it with a sideways jerking of the neck. The same was done by the mate. This was also observed during nest building (Fig. 2). 3. Copulatory behaviour: The elaborate sequence of mating between a pair is shown in Figs 3 and 4. a) The male, often emitting a low pitched precopulatory call, raises its bill about 30°, its neck no JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Fig. 3: Inter individual postures during copulation (C) of the Indian sarus crane; Bill raising (Ca), Bill-raising (Cb), Back-turning (Cc), Wing-spreading (Cd), Stepping (Ce), Mounting (Cf), Being-mounted (Cg), Sliding-down (Ch), Post copulatory display or Arching (Ci) extended obliquely upward (Bill raising Ca). After a minute or so, the crane generally begins to walk with a head-up posture to an open place. b) Seeing this, the female adopts the same posture and follows the male. c) Selecting a suitable place, the female turns her back on her mate. Immediately, the male makes its characteristic, vigorous, shrill, copulatory call, which continues with small interruptions until copulation is complete. d) The male approaches the female very slowly, with long steps, and the female spreads her wings almost open (wing spreading Cd). At the final stage, the male makes a low pitched call, and comes close to the female, who retracts her neck slightly upwards, points the bill downwards and crouches slightly. e) Flapping its wings regularly, the male suddenly steps up to the female (Stepping up Ce) places his toe on her back, and grips the female by hooking the claws on to her wings. With a little pressure on her back, the male lifts his other leg. The female bends slightly forward and her body lies almost horizontal to the ground. f) The male squats on the female’s back, hooking on his toes. The female spreads her wings wide and points her bill obliquely downwards. Both are silent. g) The male leans back, the female remains horizontal, their cloacae in contact (Cloacal kiss Cg). The female’s head is level with her body, but the bill may touch the ground. h) Just after copulation, the male calls aloud, lowers himself and slides down, always over the head of the female. After dismounting, the female stands still for a few seconds, and then both bow together and perform a ritual dance, calling in unison (Arching Ci). In four pairs, the female preened her thigh after dismounting, while the male stood upright, with his head high. Then both performed a ritual dance. In other cases, stages (a) to (f) were observed, but not copulation. In such pairs, the female runs ahead on being chased by the male. They stop, dance, both the sexes jump and then exhibit irrelevant behaviour like preening and feeding. Duetting was performed in various JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 111 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Fig. 4: Sequential line diagrams in sequence of mating behavior of the Indian sarus crane situations, before or after copulation, at relief of incubation, against intruders in territory. Duetting maintains the synchronisation of reproductive rhythm (Masatoni and Kitagawa 1975). The call of the male, followed by the female, was well described as antiphonal song by Armstrong (1963), where the female adds her utterance so promptly that it sounds like a single stereotyped song. Therefore, unison calling need not be a synchronous duet (Walkinshaw 1949). The ritual dance is the outcome of hormone-induced physiological changes within the body due to excitement, just before copulation. However, dancing has been observed even at feeding place by the gathering of the flock, as in Tancho (Iwamatsu 1966). It was also observed in a flock of 50 cranes during the present study, and has been reported earlier (Gole 1987). Interspecific dance with a young sandhill crane was recorded by Masatomi ( 1 973). Dancing can occur regardless of the number of birds, age, sex, season, place or time of day (Walkinshaw 1949). However, it was most common prior to the initiation of breeding season. The reproductive behaviour is genus- and species-specific (Masatomi 1983) and some modification of behaviour probably occurs due to the prevailing conditions (Tao and Peixun 1991). Masatomi’s (1983) captive study on eastern sarus Grus antigone sharp ii revealed similarity with the Indian sarus crane G. a. antigone , but the calling during and after copulation were different in captivity and this study in the wild. The difference may be in the subspecies. Successful copulation could be judged as having been achieved by the response of the mates to each other. The male’s bill raising and the female’s submission by wing-spreading appear to be a prerequisite for copulation, but not mandatory Acknowledgements I am obliged to Dr. B.M. Parasharya for critical evaluation of the manuscript. I also thank the National Tree Growers Cooperative Federation Ltd., Anand, for computer facilities. February 23, 2000 AESHITA MUKHERJEE AINP on Agricultural Ornithology, Gujarat Agricultural University, Anand 388 110, Gujarat, India. 112 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Refe Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1983): Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan (Compact edn.). Oxford University Press, Bombay. Armstrong, E.A. (1963): A study of bird song. London. Gole, P. (1987): Observing the Sarus. pp. 107-114. In: Proceedings of the 1983 International Crane Workshop, Bharatpur (Eds.: Archibald, G.W. and R.F. Pasquier). International Crane Foundation, Baraboo, USA. Iwamatsu, T. (1966): The Japanese Crane. Tokyo. Johnsgard, P. A. (1983): Cranes of the World. Indiana University Press, Bloomington. Masatomi, H. (1973): Communal roosting of the Sandhill Crane with Japanese Crane in Hokkaido, Japan. Wilson Bull. 84(3): 250-260. Masatomi, H. (1983): Some observations on the mating behavior of several cranes in captivity. J. Ethology 83(1): 62-69. Masatomi, H. & T. Kitagawa (1975): Bionomics and sociology of Tancho or the Japanese Crane, Grus japonensis, II Ethogram. J. Fac. Sci. Hokkaido Univ, Ser. VI. Zool. 19(4): 834-878. 9. A HERONRY AT TRAJ IN Kheda district is reckoned to be among the important bird areas of Gujarat, notable for its expanse of inland wetlands. Besides having a high density of sarus crane Grus antigone (Singh and Tatu 2000) this area also holds many heronries, such as at Traj and Pandoli village ponds (A.J. Urfi & Dilhaz Jafffey, unpubl. data). In this note, I record the Traj heronry, which was studied during June-October, 1999, in some detail. The village pond at Traj, estimated to be over 10 acres, is approximately 20 km from National Highway No. . 8, between Ahmedabad and Kheda. Since the pond is fed by a canal, there is water all year round. In this regard, it is different from many other village ponds in Gujarat, which dry up during the summer and are replenished only during the monsoon. Traj pond is bisected into two interconnected halves by a low-lying bund wall. One part is shallow and overgrown by the Indian lotus ( Nelumbo FENCES Sauey, R.T. (1976): The behavior of the Siberian Cranes wintering in India. In: Proc. Inti. Crane Workshop. Oklahoma State University, Stillwater (Ed.: Lewis, J.C.). Pp. 326 -342. Tacha, T.C. (1981): Behavior and taxonomy of Sandhill Cranes from mid continental North America. Ph. D. dissertation, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater. Tao, Y. & Li. Peixun (1991): Observations on the mating behavior of White Naped Cranes in the wild. Pp. 63-65. In: Proceedings of the 1987 International Crane Workshop (Ed.: Haris, J.) International Crane Foundation,, Baraboo, USA. Van Ee, C. A. (1966): Notes on breeding behavior of the Blue Crane Tetrapteryx paradisea. Ostrich 37: 23-39. Voss, K. (1976): Behavior of the Greater Sandhill Crane. M.Sc. thesis, Univ. Wisconsin, pp. 137 Walkinshaw, L.H. (1949): The Sandhill Cranes. Bull. 29, Cranbrook Inst. Sc. Michigan. Walkinshaw, L.H. ( 1 973) Cranes of the World. Winchester Press, New York. KHEDA DISTRICT, GUJARAT nucifera ), while the other is deeper and has a small island with several Acacia and Ficus trees. On our first visit to Traj on June 15, we observed that about 200 Asian openbill-stork (Anastomus oscitans) had collected on the trees on the island, along with the little egret ( Egretta garzetta) and little cormorant ( Phalacrocorax niger). On a second visit on June 2 1 , the nesting of these species was confirmed and on July 14, new breeding species Oriental white ibis ( Threskiornis melanocephalus) and median egret ( Mesophoyx intermedia) were observed to have also joined the heronry. Even at this stage, the openbill-stork were seen flying about on nest building chores, such as collecting fresh leafy twigs to add to their nests. On the fourth visit on August 28, chicks of Asian openbill-stork, white ibis, median egret and cattle egret ( Bubulcus ibis) were observed. One darter ( Anhinga melanogaster) and 4 painted stork ( Mycteria leucocephala) were also observed, leading us to JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 113 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES suspect that these species would nest here at an appropriate time. However, these birds were not seen again during a trip on October 7. By now, the chicks of all heronry birds had reached subadult proportions. Since the island is some distance away from the bund walls surrounding the pond from which observations can be made, it was not possible to ascertain the number of nests of each species on any occasion. Other than the heronry, the wildlife value of Traj village pond has some other aspects too. On most of our visits we encountered quite high numbers of sarus crane, 68 in the shallow part of Traj pond on July 14 being the highest number. Other types of waterbirds viz, rails, kingfisher, ducks etc. were also seen here. Another interesting feature is the presence of mugger ( Crocodylus palustris) in the deep part of the Traj pond (Vijaykumar 1997). On our visits five mugger were observed, of which three were large specimens ( c . 3m) and two smaller individuals (1.2-3m). However, we did not come across any instance of mugger predating on adult or juvenile birds of the heronry. For ornithologically significant village ponds in the Ahmedabad region, a conservation and education strategy has been chalked out by Urfi and Nareshwar (1998). This plan envisages population monitoring of heronry birds and simple interpretation and community sensitization programs. I wish to thank Dilhaz Jaffrey, E.K. Nareshwar and Narendra Nethwa for company on field trips. I am grateful to Mr. K.V. Sarabhai, Director, Centre for Environment Education, Ahmedabad, for encouragement. February 23, 2000 ABDUL JAMIL URFI Sundarvan Nature Dicovery Centre, S.M. Road, Jodhpur Tekra, Ahmedabad 380 015, Gujarat, India. References Singh, H.S. & K. Tatu (2000): A study on Indian Sarus Crane ( Grus antigone antigone ) in Gujarat state. Gujarat Ecological Educational and Research (GEER) Foundation, Gandhinagar. Urfi, A.J. & M. Nareshwar ( 1 998): Interpreting a village Pond Heronry, NewsEE 4: 5. Vijaykumar, V. (1997): Evaluation of restocked mugger crocodiles and its implication for long-term conservation and management of species in Gujarat, India. Gujarat Institute of Desert Ecology, Bhuj. 10. INTERACTION BETWEEN SIBERIAN CRANE GRUS LEUCOGERANUS AND CHECKERED KEELBACK SNAKE XENOCHROPHIS PISCATOR IN KEOLADEO NATIONAL PARK, BHARATPUR On July 1 , 1997 while collecting information on the time budget and activity patterns of four released Siberian cranes Grus leucogeranus in the Keoladeo National Park, I noticed a crane hurriedly pacing up and down a distance of c. 10 m. Through my telescope I noticed a checkered keelback water snake Xenochrophis piscator holding on to the crane’s face. The one metre long water snake had wrapped itself around the crane’s neck. The crane tried hard to shake the snake off her face. She tried removing it by vigorously shaking her head and neck, and also with her feet. Three other cranes foraging nearby stopped feeding and looked nervously at the affected crane that struggled for more than ten minutes, before the snake loosened its grip and dropped off. After the snake had left, the crane splashed water on her face and neck for some time and started preening. The other cranes also resumed their activities. In 1 996-97, the water hyacinth Eichhornia crassipes had choked most of the marshes in the Park because of which water snakes had become abundant. The Park Management was getting the hyacinth removed manually as part of the Park’s 114 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Vegetation Management. On an average, 10-12 workers involved in this task were bitten every day by water snakes (Park Director, pers. comm.). There were heaps of water hyacinth lying where the cranes were foraging. It is possible that the snake was lying in wait for prey. Water snakes are known to be pugnacious, not letting go of their prey till it dies, but not strangulating it. They are known to feed on small mammals, birds, fish and amphibians (Daniel 1992, THE BOOK OF INDIAN REPTILES). The huge pythons Python molurus present in the Keoladeo marshes could be considered as potential predators of cranes. I have not come across any reference on snake-crane interaction and think it is worth recording. September 22, 1999 GARGI Bombay Natural History Society, 331, Rajendra Nagar, Bharatpur 321 001, Rajasthan, India. 1 1 . TWO INTERESTING AVIAN RECORDS FROM KUTCH, GUJARAT STATE This note concerns the occurrence of Glareola pratincola (Linnaeus) and Monticola cinclorhynchus (Vigors) in Kutch. Earlier records mention the occurrence of the former, but since the nineteenth century it has not been recorded in this region. In recent years, it has been seen in 1992 (Himmatsinhji, JBNHS 96(2): 316-31 7) and 1 999. The latter has been recorded for the first time and it was seen on January 27, 1985 and March 9, 1999. While MKH and SNV watched water birds from a location on the Bhuj-Pachham road (c. 30 km north of Bhuj) on October 18, 1992, a pratincole flew in and settled down on the marsh. Soon thereafter, a juvenile bird also came down nearby. We remained there for some time, but saw no interaction between them. These individuals had deeply forked tails, and from details of the adult coloration, observed through binoculars and a telescope, appeared to be Glareola p. pratincola. However, we preferred to wait for a good photograph or specimen to confirm our identification in the field. We learn that Mr. Nitin Jamdar came across this species in the Banni grasslands and in the vicinity of Chhari dhandh (pers . comm.). Besides this, on March 29, 1999 SNV counted 25 G. pratincola at Chhari dhandh. Stuart Baker ( 1 929) made the only mention of the collared pratincole in Kutch, but it is not clear on what authority or evidence he did so. Dr. Ferdinand Stoliczka was the first to collect bird specimens from Kutch. Apparently, Hume also collected information on the birds of this region, and also had specimens collected through his own sources. This was followed by a study of birds by one Hugh Palin, who prepared the first edition of the birds of kutch in 1 878, which was revised by Capt. C.D. Lester in 1904. None of these gentlemen, nor the Salim Ali survey of 1943-44, make any mention of the occurrence of G. pratincola. Stuart Baker also refers to the occurrence and breeding of G. p. maldivarum in Kutch and Sind. Taking into account all the references available to us, we feel there is now less likelihood of maldivarum occurring in Kutch. Roberts (1991) also mentions that there are no authentic recent sightings or records of this race in Pakistan. He further states that G. pratincola is met with mostly in lower Sind, particularly in Badin district along the border with India in the Great Rann of Kutch, and that too as a summer breeding visitor from East Africa. Gallager (1980) describes the collared pratincole as a passage migrant in Oman, the main passage being from August-October. That is after their breeding is over. The water regime in the northwest part of the Great Rann (directly south of Badin in Sindh, JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 115 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Pakistan) has undergone some changes over the years, owing to the release of water through a nullah to reduce the salinity of some land under the irrigation system. Because of this, some waterbirds (including both the greater and lesser flamingos) have extended their movements to that area. The collared pratincole may also move further southwards into Kutch from there. The second noteworthy bird-record for Kutch was of a male blueheaded rock thrush Monticola cinclorhynchus (Vigors) seen by SN V near Dhonsa jheel (Bhuj environs) on January 27, 1985. The second sight record of this species in Kutch was by Fakirmahamad A. Turk, at his fruit farm at Dhrab village, west of Mundra, c. 45 km south of Bhuj, on March 9, 1999. He observed the bird till March 23, 1999; took coloured photographs (it was a male) and showed them to MKH. This bird breeds along the Himalayan Refer Ali, S. (1945): The Birds of Kutch. Oxford University Press, Bombay. Pp. 175. Dharmakumarsinhji, R.S. (Date of publication not mentioned): Birds of Saurashtra. Published by R.S. Dharmakumarsinhji. Printed by The Times of India Press, Bombay. Pp. 562. Gallager, Michael (1980): The Birds of Oman. Quartet Books Ltd. London. ranges and spends the winter in the Indian peninsula, but there are few records of its occurrence around Kutch. Though Dharmakumarsinhji lists it in his birds of saurashtra, no specific reference is made therein to its presence in that region. Ripley (1982) mentions scarce cold weather records in southern Rajasthan and Gujarat (‘including Kathiawar’). On the other hand, Roberts (1992) considers it a scarce winter visitor to Sindh. Thus, the blueheaded rock thrush is a vagrant in Kutch, not recorded before. July 30, 1999 M.K. HIMMATSINHJI Jubilee Ground Bhuj, Kutch 370 001, Gujarat, India. S.N. VARU Juna Vas, Madhapur Taluka Bhuj, Kutch, Gujarat, India. E N C E S Lester, Capt. C.D. (1904): The Birds of Cutch. The Times of India Press, Bombay. Ripley, S.D. (1982): A Synopsis of the Birds of India and Pakistan 2nd edn. BNHS, Bombay. Pp. 652. Roberts, T.J. (1991 & 1992): The Birds of Pakistan, Vols 1 & 2. Oxford University Press, Karachi. Stuart Baker, E.C. (1929): The Fauna of British India, Birds, Vol. VI, 2 "d edn. Taylor and Francis, London. 12. OCCURRENCE OF THE CEYLON FROGMOUTH BATRACHOSTOMUS MONIL1GER (FAMILY PODARGIDAE) IN RADFLANAGARI WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, MAHARASHTRA On November 21, 1998, I visited Radhanagari Wildlife Sanctuary, Kolhapur district, Maharashtra along with my friends. We were moving along one of the roads in the Dajipur region of the Sanctuary, leading to the core zone. The forest is of the west coast tropical evergreen and semi-evergreen type. At about 1120 hrs, we saw a large amount of bird droppings on the road, under a medium sized tree, so I thought that there may be a bird nest or roosting place. We started looking for the bird and located it soon, perched perfectly camouflaged on a small branch about 4 to 5 m above the ground. As it was disturbed, the bird flew off and sat on another branch of the same tree. I approached the bird and was able to take a few photographs from about 2 m away. As I moved closer, the bird started moving its head like an owlet, opened its large mouth, and then flew away into the nearby jungle. 116 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES On referring to literature, I realized that the bird was a Ceylon frogmouth ( Balrachostomus moniliger). I continued my observations and noticed a small round nest, placed in the fork of a small terminal branch. The cryptic colour of the nest was similar to that of the branch and a half grown nestling was present in the nest. When closely approached, the nestling started opening its mouth. The Ceylon frogmouth ( Batrachostomus moniliger ) is one of the least known species of the evergreen forest biotope of the Western Ghats. The species was recorded earlier by Dr. Salim Ali in Kerala (1935) who described it as a little known, nocturnal species, seldom seen during daytime. It was recorded again by Vijayan (1979) and Sugathan (1981) in Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary, Kannan (1994) recorded it for the first time from Tamil Nadu and Renee Borges (1986) recorded it from Kanara, North Karnataka. The present record extends its range further north. The distributional range of the Ceylon frogmouth extends from the southern heavy rainfall tracts of the Western Ghats, from c. 1 5° N in North Kanara district, south to Trivandrum district, Kerala, (Ali 1970). According to Sugathan (1981), the distributional range of the Ceylon frogmouth is believed to be from the wet evergreen forests of Karnataka state in the Western Ghats to the southern tip of the country in Tamil Nadu, and Sri Lanka. The altitudinal limit of this bird is believed to be 1 ,200 m above msl. Acknowledgements I express my sincere thanks to Mr. J.C. Daniel, Hon. Secretary, Dr. A.R. Rahmani, Director, and Mr. N. Chaturvedi, Curator, BNHS for their valuable guidance and encouragement. I thank Mr. Vijay Patil and Mr. Abhijit Lingras of Kolhapur for their support in the field. I also thank Mr. Prashant Mahajan and Ms Meghana Gavand, who carefully went through the manuscript. September 22, 1999 VARAD B. GIRI Bombay Natural History Society, Hornbill House, S.B. Singh Road, Opp. Lion Gate, Dr. Salim Ali Chowk, Mumbai 400 023, Maharashtra, India. References Ali, S. (1935): The Birds of Travancore and Cochin. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay. Pp. 322. Ali, S. (1970): Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan. Oxford University Press, Bombay, Vol.4. Pp. 1-3. Borges, R. (1986): On the occurrence of Ceylon Frogmouth, Batrachostomus moniliger in N. Kanara, Karnataka. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 83(1): 200. Kannan, R. (1994): Notes on the status and ecology of the Ceylon Frogmouth ( Batrachostomus moniliger Blyth) from the Anaimalai Hills of Tamil Nadu. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 91(3): 454-455. Sugathan, R. (1981): A survey of Ceylon Frogmouth {Batrachostomus moniliger) habitat in the Western Ghats of India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 78(3): 309-315. Vijayan, V.S. (1979): Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary and its adjacent areas. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 75(3): 888-900. 13. JUNGLE CROW CORVUS MACRORHYNCHOS AND ITS INGENUITY WITH DRY ROTI On May 26, 1 999 I was sitting near an movements of animals and birds had slackened, artificial water hole in Kumbalgarh Wildlife At 1210 hrs, a jungle crow ( Corvus Sanctuary, Rajasthan. During the afternoon, the macrorhynchos) came and perched on the branch JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 117 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES of a babul tree {Acacia nilotica ) near the water hole. The crow had a big piece of dry roti (bread) in its beak. After scanning the area, it flew near the water hole, submerged the roti in the water and started drinking water. After about four minutes, it removed the soft roti from the water and started eating it. When it had finished half of it, a blue bull {Boselaphus tragocamelus) approached it. The crow flew away, leaving part of its food near the water hole. The next day, I was sitting near the same water hole when at 1220 hours, a jungle crow came with a piece of dry roti in its beak and perched on the same tree. After scanning the area, it landed near the water hole, submerged the dry roti in the water, drank water and removed the roti from the water after four minutes. However, this time the crow flew away from the water hole with the softened piece of roti in its beak. I was surprised to see this ingenious behaviour of the crow. September 22, 1 999 RAZA H. TEHSIN 38/106, Panchwati Udaipur 313 004, Rajasthan, India. 14. MORE EVIDENCE OF RED-VENTED BULBUL PYCNONOTUS CAFER FEEDING ON HOUSE GECKO HEMIDACTYLUS FLAVIVIR1DIS The animal food of red-vented bulbul Pycnonotus cafer is recorded to be various large insects, including caterpillars, moths, ants and termites among others. In a rare case, a young common garden lizard Calotes versicolor was brought by the parent bird to feed its young, which resulted in the death of the young (Ali and Ripley 1987). Bharos (1999) recorded the attempted feeding by redvented bulbul on house gecko Hemidactylus flaviviridis, in which the bird killed the prey, but did not consume it. On August 20, 1999 at about 1530 hrs, a red-vented bulbul landed on the large verandah of my house at Malda district, West Bengal, about 3 m away from me. It dropped a food item in the verandah, and started pecking at it. On taking a closer look, I found that it was a house gecko, about 12 cm in length. The lizard was almost intact except for the head, which was severed from the neck. Even after several pecks, the bird could not get a morsel. Then it started pulling out the viscera of the lizard through the severed neck by pushing its head deep into the abdomen. It fed on the viscera for the next 10 minutes. Unfortunately it was disturbed by my curiosity and flew off with the prey. I rushed to the verandah, but could not locate the prey or the bulbul again. The northern house gecko is one of the commonest reptiles in West Bengal, and is found in almost every house. Its avian predators, as I have observed, include Oriental magpie-robin (Copsychus saularis) and the common myna ( Acridotheres tristis). The latter was seen to capture a house gecko on April 4, 1998 near my house. But in this case, the gecko was lucky, it shed its tail by autotomy, to avoid the attention of the predator. The myna left the battleground carrying the tail of the prey, and settled on its nest in the ventilator of a nearby building. November 9, 1999 SAMIRAN JHA Green Peoples India, Pranta Pally, PO. and Dist. Malda 732 101, West Bengal, India. References Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1987): Compact Handbook of the Bharos, A.M.K. (1999): Attempt by redvented bulbul Birds of India and Pakistan. Oxford University Pycnonotus cafer to feed on a young house gecko Press, New Delhi. Hemidactylus flaviviridis. JBNHS 96(2): 320. 118 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 15. BROWN CRAKE AMA URORNIS AKOOL SYKES FEEDING ON THE EGGS OF THE LARGE PIED WAGTAIL MOTACILLA MADERASPATENSIS GMELIN While I was studying the breeding biology of the large pied wagtail Motacilla maderaspatensis Gmelin on March 29, 1993, a pair of brown crakes (Amauromis akool ) raided the nest of the wagtail, located in a clump of polygonum (. Polygonum glabrum) about 3 m from the banks of the river Mutha, Pune, Maharashtra. When I saw the crakes perched on a rocky islet, I hid in the green belt of plants, especially the evergreen karanj tree ( Pongamia glabra). The breeding pair of wagtails immediately noticed the crakes, and without losing a second they started dive-bombing attacks. The crakes seemed to be indifferent, they did not move. One of the birds stretched its neck and uttered “a longdrawn vibrating whistle” (Ali and Ripley, handbook vol. 2: 168) This call can be described as “Tir rrrrrrrrr ...”. It was not only clearly audible to me, but anyone in the vicinity of the river could have easily heard it. This call served as a kind of signal to another bird, which was slightly larger. The larger crake dashed into the Polygonum bush and raided the nest. By pecking forcefully at the eggs, the crake broke them open and gulped down the white and the yolk as quickly as possible. The wagtails did not keep quiet while their nest was being robbed. They kept fluttering and hovering restlessly around the bush. The nest was completely destroyed within three minutes. The crakes flew off and disappeared into the bushes bordering the water. The wagtails chased them off frantically, but could not make physical contact. After having returned to the nest, the wagtails remained silent for about 5 minutes. The male perched on the polygonum bush made the first move, climbed down and walked up to the nest. Both the male and the female wagtail fed on the remains of the eggs. They also picked up the eggshells and disposed of them a few metres away from the nest. November 9, 1999 KIRAN PURANDARE 62/ A, ‘Prashant’ Erandwane Gaonthan, Off Karve Road, Pune 411 004, Maharashta, India. 16. STATUS OF THE PURPLE-RUMPED SUNBIRD NECTAR1NIA ZEYLONICA IN GUJARAT STATE The purple-rumped sunbird Nectarinia zeylonica (Linn.) is known to occur in peninsular India, south of a line from Nasik (northwest Maharashtra), Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh (Ripley 1982, Ali and Ripley 1983, Grimmett et al. 1998). Ali (1955) during his avifaunal survey of Gujarat State had only a single sight record of this species from Pavagadh, Panchmahal district on October 30, 1944. At least three other publications show that the species occurs definitely in the Rajpipla forest along the River Narmada (Monga and Naoroji 1983, Desai et al. 1993, Narve et al. 1997). In spite of this, only a single sighting is recorded by Grimmett et al. (1998). We have been observing this species throughout the year at Vadodara (22° 00' N, 73° 16' E) and Anand (22° 32' N, 73° 00' E). It also breeds at both the places. One of us (Raju Vyas) located one nest on a bougainvillea plant during March-April 1986 at Sayajibaug Zoo Garden, Vadodara. Shri Fatehsinh Jasol photographed the nesting pair. At Anand, we observed a female feeding her two fledglings on June 30, 1 995. We also observed breeding at Nadiad (22° 4 1 ' N, 72° 55' E) and Pariej (22° 33' N, 72° 38' E) in Kheda JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 1 19 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES district, Gujarat. At Surat (21° 12' N, 72° 52' E), it is a common breeding species (Bakul Trivedi, Snehal Patel, Mukesh Bhatt, pers. comm.) Sightings at Ahmedabad and Gandhinagar during 1998 by Shri Lavkumar Khacher and Shri Lalsinh Raol (Raol 1999) indicate its western distributional limit in Gujarat. It can be concluded that the purple-rumped sunbird Nectarinia zeylonica is an uncommon resident of Gujarat State, and occurs in Surat district, Shoolpaneswar Wildlife Sanctuary (Bharuch district) as well as Vadodara, Kheda, Ahmedabad and Gandhinagar districts. Salim Ali’s remark (Ali 1955) that ‘it seems curious that the species should be so rare in Gujarat’ is clarified now. February 23, 2000 B.M. PARASHARYA AINP on Agricultural Ornithology Gujarat Agricultural University, Anand 388 110, Gujarat, India. RAJU VYAS Sayaji Baug Zoo Garden, Vadodara 390 018, Gujarat, India. References Ali, S. (1955): The Birds of Gujarat, part II. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 52(4): 735-802. Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1983): Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan. (Compact Edn.) Oxford University Press, Delhi. Pp. 654. Desai, I.V., B. Suresh & B. Pilo (1993): Birds of Shool- paneswar Wildlife Sanctuary. Pavo 31(1&2): 55-72. Grimmett, R., C. Inskipp & T. Inskipp ( 1 998): Birds of the Indian Subcontinent. Oxford University Press, New Delhi. Pp. 801-802. Monga, S.G. & Rishad Naoroji (1983): Birds of the Rajpipla forests — south Gujarat. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 80: 575-612. Narve, D.S., C.D. Patel & N.P. Pandya (1997): Avifaunal diversity in Shoolpaneshwar Sanctuary. Tiger Paper 24(1): 17-22. Raol, L. (1999): Pachrangi Sakkarkhoro (Purplerumped Sunbird). Vihang 2(1): 6. Ripley, S.D. (1982): A Synopsis of the Birds of India and Pakistan. Oxford University Press, Delhi. Pp. 528. 17. A SUPPLEMENTARY NOTE ON THE AVIFAUNA OF THE THAR DESERT (RAJASTHAN) While birdwatching in the Thar desert between December 1985 and September 1999, 1 made extensive notes on the birds I encountered. It was, however, not until the publication of an annotated checklist of the birds of the Thar desert of Rajasthan (Rahmani 1997) which summarises the bird records of three surveys between February 1993 and May 1994, that I felt the need to publish my own sightings. Based on my experience in the area, I realised that the above mentioned checklist was not comprehensive. The purpose of this paper is to update Rahmani ’s list with additional records. Details of all records, both published and unpublished, are given for uncommon and rare species, while for those more frequent, only status and distribution are given. Systematic list Sixty-two species are listed below. The species’ status in the Thar desert of Rajasthan is given in brackets as follows: R Resident; PR Presumably Resident; W Winter Visitor; S Summer Visitor; M Monsoon Visitor; PM Passage Migrant; V Vagrant; and (?) Status uncertain. Some of these are provisional, to be regarded as a general guide rather than a definitive statement. Common and scientific names are based on Manakadan and Pittie (2001). Great crested grebe Podiceps cristatus (W): Recorded in the eastern part of the desert where there are suitable wetlands. A party of 22 was seen at Kharda, Pali district on January 5, 1989. Two were seen at Sardarsamand, Pali district on the same day. 120 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Black-necked grebe Podiceps nigricollis (W): One individual was observed at Kharda, Pali district on January 5, 1989. Great white pelican Pelecanus onocrotalus (W): Fifteen were observed at Kagoda, Banner district on February 19, 1994. Twenty were recorded on January 3 1 and one on March 15, 1998 at Revasa, Sikar district. Quite regularly seen at Sardarsamand, Pali district. Spot-billed pelican Pelecanus philippensis (W): Ten were recorded at Revasa, Sikar district on January 31,1 998 in the company of great white pelicans. Black-crowned Night heron Nycticorax nycticorax (PR): More than 76, including 15 juveniles, were roosting at Revasa, Sikar district on January 31, 1998. Lesser flamingo Phoenicopterus minor (W): Regular in winter at Sambhar Lake in varying numbers. About 18,500 were censused between December, 1995 and March, 1996 at Sambhar Lake (Sangha 1998). 90 were observed feeding at Kagoda, Barmer district on February 19, 1994. Three birds were recorded at Sardarsamand, Pali district on January 5, 1989. About 200 were recorded at Badopal near Suratgarh and two birds near Chhatargarh, Bikaner district during the winter of 1994 (R.G. Soni pers. comm.) Marbled teal Marmaronella angustirostris (W): An increasingly rare migrant. It was classified as a straggler and reported in Rajasthan from Bikaner and Bharatpur (Ali and Ripley 1987). There are only three recent records from the area under consideration. On February 14, 1994 three birds were recorded at RD 1 333 on the Rajasthan Canal (Indira Gandhi Nahar). One on February 15, 1994, at RD 1440 on the Rajasthan Canal (Indira Gandhi Nahar) near Mohangarh, Jaisalmer district (Sangha 1994) and three from Pali, in February 1991 (Tiwari 1991). Comb duck Sarkidiornis melanotus (R): Irregularly seen in the eastern part of the desert, local movements subject to water conditions. Two were recorded at Balsamand, Jodhpur district on January 15, 1989. Breeds atNimaj, Pali district (Bhagirath Singh, pers. comm.). Listed as common by Hume (Whistler 1938). Northern goshawk Accipiter gentilis (W): A rare migrant. First recorded from Rajasthan on January 3, 1990 at Gajner, Bikaner district, with an Indian sandgrouse Pterocles exustus in its claws. 1 have not seen it at Gajner on subsequent visits. Eurasian Sparrow-hawk Accipiter nisus (W): Six in a loose flock were seen attacking greater short-toed larks Calandrella brachydactyla at Tal Chhapar, Churu district on February 12, 1994. Two were recorded on January 28, 1996 and three on February 1, 1998 at the same place. Hume considered the species as very rare (Whistler 1938). Bonelli’s eagle Hieraaetus fasciatus (R,W): Two were recorded at Fossil Park, Jaisalmer on January 12, 1986 (Phil Heath pers. comm.). One bird was observed drinking water at RD 845 on the Rajasthan Canal (Indira Gandhi Nahar) on February 13, 1994. Included by Hume and Whistler in their list (Whistler 1938). Himalayan griffon Gyps himalayensis (W): Presumably a not so rare winter visitor, it seems to have been overlooked by bird watchers. One bird was seen near Mohangarh, Jaisalmer district on February 15, 1994. Osprey Pandion haliaetus (W): Irregularly seen at Revasa, Sikar district as there has been no water for some years. Atleast one bird was sighted at Gajner, Bikaner, during December 1990 (R.G. Soni pers. comm.). Merlin Falco columbarius (W): Rare winter visitor. Harsh Vardhan and I recorded one bird at Kanod, Jaisalmer district on February 15, 1994. The bird was hunting citrine wagtails Motacilla citreola near a shrinking waterbody. One bird was recorded on February 1, 1998 at Tal Chhapar, Churu district. A new record for Rajasthan. Jungle bush-quail Perdicula asiatica (R): JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR 2002 121 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Not uncommon in the eastern parts of the desert. Recorded from Revasa, Sikar district and Nimaj, Pali district. Sarus crane Grus antigone (PR): Not uncommon in suitable areas of Pali and Jodhpur. Eight birds were recorded on March 28, 1993 at Sardarsamand, Pali district. A pair was seen and photographed at Navoda near Pachpadra, Banner district in December 1998 (. Rajasthan Patrika , December 6, 1998). Up to five birds were observed during December, 1998 at Nimaj, Pali district (Bhagirath Singh pers. comm.). Pheasant-tailed ja^ana Hydrophasianus chirurgus (PR): Likely to become common with the development of large seepage water bodies in the Rajasthan Canal area. At least four birds were sighted on a large wetland near RD 507 on October 2, 1998. Beach stone plover Esacus magnirostris (R): Confined to the eastern parts of the desert. 28 were recorded at Sardarsamand, Pali district on March 28, 1993. Two at Revasa, Sikar district on June 2, 1998. Probably breeds at both sites. Two birds were recorded at Kuchaman, Nagaur district on June 9, 1993. Reported by Hume in ‘suitable river beds in Jodhpur’ (Whistler 1938). Small pratincole Glareola lactea (?): Five were recorded at Kuchaman lake, Nagaur district on October 25, 1991. Sociable lapwing Vanellus gregarius (W): An increasingly rare species, though Hume rated it as common (Whistler 1938). There are three records from Tal Chhapar, Churu district. One juvenile was recorded from Revasa, Sikar district (Sangha 2000). Two birds were recorded from Jaisalmer on January 18, 1999 (Ben King pers. comm.). Northern lapwing Vanellus vanellus (W): Uncommon winter visitor. I recorded four birds on January 3, 1990 at Gajner, Bikaner district. One bird was recorded at Jod Beed, Bikaner in winter, 1993 (M. Kulshreshtha pers. comm.). Adam saw it twice at Kuchaman, Nagaur district (Whistler 1938). Grey plover Pluvialis squatarola (PM): Two were recorded on February 29, 1997 and two on May 3, 1998 at Sambhar Lake. ‘A specimen of this bird in full breeding plumage was shot’ at Sambhar Lake (Adam 1 874). Pacific golden-plover Pluvialis fulva (PM) One individual in total breeding plumage was observed on April 3, 1997 at Sambhar Lake. Hume mentions one specimen collected from Pali (Whistler 1938). Greater sand plover Cltaradrius leschenaultii (PM): Five birds were recorded in partial breeding plumage on September 10, 1998 at Sambhar Lake. Also recorded by Adam at Sambhar Lake (1874). Eurasian curlew Numenius arquata (W, PM): Many records. Sightings of 18 birds on October 25, 1991 and one on March 27, 1993 at Kuchaman, Nagaur district; five seen on August 13, 1994; two on May 3, 1998 and six on August 7, 1998 at Sambhar Lake; one at Tal Chhapar, Churu on January 28, 1996, one at Deedwana, Nagaur on February 1, 1998. Hume rated the species as rare (Whistler 1938). Terek sandpiper Xenus cinereus (PM): One bird was recorded at Sambhar Lake on September 10, 1998. Previously recorded at Sambhar Lake (Adam 1873). Jack snipe Lymnocryptes minimus (W): One bird was recorded on February 1, 1998 at Kuchaman lake, Nagaur. Although listed by Hume (Whistler 1938), the species was possibly uncommon in the desert then as it is today. Dunlin Calidris alpina (?) Per Undeland and I recorded 87 birds at Deedwana, Nagaur on February 1, 1998. Earlier at the same site, I recorded five birds on January 29, 1 996. 1 3 were recorded on September 5, 1 999 at Sambhar Lake. Four were in breeding plumage. Curlew sandpiper Calidris ferruginea (?) Per Undeland and I recorded 8 birds at Deedwana, Nagaur on February 1 , 1998. 25 birds were recorded at Sambhar Lake on September 25, 1998. Two of the birds were still in breeding 122 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES plumage. Six were recorded on September 5, 1999 at Sambhar Lake. Red-necked phalarope Phalaropus lobatus (PM): 27 were foraging at Sambhar Lake on September 10, 1998. Two were recorded on a small pond close to the road near Revasa, Sikar district on September 12, 1998. Previously, specimens of this rare bird were obtained by Adam at Sambhar Lake (1874). *Herring gull Lams argentatus (W, PM): Fairly common on Sambhar Lake. Brown-headed gull Larus brunnicephalus (W, PM): Five were recorded at Gadisar, Jaisalmer on August 16, 1989. Fairly common on Sambhar Lake. Recorded by Whistler (1938). Whiskered tern Chlidonias hybridus (W): Fairly common at Sambhar Lake and Revasa, Sikar district. Up to 250 were recorded at Sambhar Lake on September 23, 1996. Also at Badopal, Ganganagar district; Sardarsamand, Pali district and a wetland near RD 507 on the Rajasthan Canal (Indira Gandhi Nahar). Gull-billed tern Geloc/telidon nilotica (?): Seen all the year round in small flocks. Regular and fairly common at Sambhar Lake, Revasa and Deedwana. More than 100 birds were noted at Sambhar Lake on September 23, 1996. Five birds were hunting over a wheat field near Suratgarh, Ganganagar district on March 28, 1999. On May 23, 1999 three birds were observed hawking at Revasa, Sikar district. Little tern Sterna albifrons (?): Summer visitor? Has been recorded at Revasa, Sikar district only in summer, where two pairs were recorded breeding in 1998 (Sangha and Kulshreshtha 1999). On May 23, 1999 I found one bird in breeding plumage at the same site. Indian skimmer Rhynchops albicollis (V): There are two records from the desert area. The Zoological Survey of India (ZSI) collected one bird from Dangiwas, Jodhpur on August 10, 1966. One bird was recorded at Jod-Beed, Bikaner on March 28, 1993 (Sangha and Kulshreshtha 1998). Painted sandgrouse Pterocles indicus (R): Fairly common in suitable areas of Sikar and Pali districts. Asian Koel Eudynamys scolopacea (R): Not uncommon in Jodhpur city, perhaps increasing (Prakash 1998). One bird was heard calling at Gajner, Bikaner district on March 29, 1999 and one was seen at RD 840 on the Rajasthan Canal on October 1, 1998. Sirkeer malkoha Phaenicophaeus leschenaultii (PR): I observed one individual near Sardarsamand, Pali district on January 5, 1989. ‘Dr. King collected a specimen at Jodhpur’ in the rains (Whistler 1938). Barn owl Tyto alba (PR): Probably a scarce resident. There are four records from the Thar desert. One bird collided with an aircraft at Jodhpur (Satheesan and Grubh 1992). 1 found a dead bird on the road near Dungargarh, Churu district on March 3, 1993, and one in the gloaming on March 25, 1993 near Kheechan with Harsh Vardhan. Between Ratangarh and Dungargarh, a dead bird was recorded on February 24, 1 996 (Rishad Naorojipers. comm.). Eurasian eagle-owl Bubo bubo (PR): Not common, but seems to be widespread. Not listed by Whistler (1938). One bird was observed hunting during the day at Tal Chhapar, Churu district on October 23, 1988. One was being mobbed by house crows Corvus splendens while drinking water at the Rajasthan Canal at RD 1214 on February 13, 1994. One was seenatAkal Fossil Park, Jaisalmer on October 3, 1993. Desert finch-lark Ammomanes deserti (R): All records are from Jaisalmer, where it is fairly common in suitable habitats. Affects desolate, barren country in rocky, gravelly areas ( magra ). Usually found in pairs or small groups (Sangha and Kulshreshtha 1993). Not recorded by Hume and Whistler (Whistler 1938). Ali and Ripley (1987) recorded it only from Jammu. Red-rumped swallow Hirundo daurica (M, W): Quite widespread during monsoon. * Now split into L. heuglini and L. cachinnans 123 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Small numbers are recorded in winter also. More common in the eastern parts of the desert. Red-backed shrike Lanius collurio (PM): Uncommon passage migrant. A single male bird was recorded near Khuri, Jaisalmer district on September 10, 1993. One female with very prominent crescent marks on breast and flanks was recorded on October 3, 1993 at Barna village, in the Desert National Park, Jaisalmer (Sangha 1995). Eurasian golden oriole Oriolus oriolus (S, V): The bird breeds in the canal areas of Ganganagar, Hanumangarh and Bikaner. R.G. Soni (1994) also recorded its breeding in the canal areas. Marshall’s iora Aegithinia nigrolutea (R): A breeding resident in Jodhpur, Pali and Sikar districts. Recorded by Hume from Jodhpur and by Adam from Kuchaman, Nagaur district (Whistler 1938). Red-throated flycatcher Ficedula parva (W): Very common in plantations in the canal areas of Ganganagar, Bikaner and Jaisalmer (Sangha 1995). I have recorded it from suitable habitats in Sikar, Pali and Jodhpur districts; regularly from Bada Bag, Jaisalmer and Tal Chhapar, Churu. Specimens were collected from Hemavas Lake (Whistler 1938). Also included in Hume’s Jodhpur State list (Whistler 1938). Grey-headed flycatcher Culicicapa ceylonenis (W): A rare winter-migrant in the desert, but may increase in the canal areas. There is one record from Bajju, Bikaner district. It is not uncommon in wooded areas of Sikar district. Blyth’s reed-warbler Acrocephalus dumetorum (PM): Common in wooded areas and plantations during spring and autumn passage. It begins to arrive from mid- August and continues to do so till late October in small waves. Spring passage starts from end of March and continues to mid-May. Commonly seen in the plantation along the Rajasthan Canal (Indira Gandhi Nahar) and at Tal Chhapar, Churu and Revasa, Sikar district. Plain leaf-warbler Phylloscopus neglectus (W): It winters mainly in Pakistan and its current status in India is uncertain (Grimmett, Inskipp and Inskipp 1998), but l found it quite regularly in the Fossil Park and the Desert National Park, Jaisalmer. A new record for India. Olivaceous leaf-warbler Phylloscopus griseolus (?): All records are of autumn and spring passage. One bird was recorded from the Desert National Park, Jaisalmer on March 4, 1990 (Sangha 1995). One bird was recorded at Tal Chhapar, Churu district on September 30, 1998. Two birds were recorded near Bajju, Bikaner district on March 28, 1999. La Personne collected specimens during the surveys of Jodhpur State (Whistler 1938). Greenish leaf-warbler Phylloscopus Irochiloides (?): I observed one individual on September 30, 1998 at Tal Chhapar, Churu district, feeding in the trees near the rest house. Blue rock-thrush Monticola solitarius (W): Uncommon. One individual was recorded at Gajner, Bikaner district on January 3, 1990 and one on December 19, 1998 at the same place. Hume reported it from the neighbourhood of Jodhpur (Whistler 1938). Orange-headed thrush Zoothera citrina (W): A rare winter visitor, but may become more common in the canal area. One bird was recorded between Bajju and Amarpura on February 13, 1994. Possibly the first record for the Thar desert. Pied tit Parus nuchalis (R): The species is found in thorn forests of Pali and Nagaur districts of the desert. J.K. Tiwari (1997) found it in Jalore also. Paddyfield pipit Anthus rufulus (PR): Not uncommon from Pali and Sikar, the eastern districts of the desert, where it possibly breeds. Also recorded from Badopal, Ganganagar and Diyatra, Bikaner on March 27, 1999. Hume received no specimen from Jodhpur (Whistler 1938). 124 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES White-Eye Zosterops palpebrosa (R): Fairly common in the eastern parts of the desert. I have recorded the species breeding in Jodhpur and Sikar districts. Listed by Whistler (1938). Blackheaded munia Lonchura malacca (?): One bird was recorded during monsoon, 1 994 near Mohangarh, Jaisalmer district. (R.G. Soni pers. comm.) Trumpeter finch Bucanetes githagineus (W): All my recent records are from Jaisalmer district, although Hume collected a male near Jodhpur (Whistler 1938). Not uncommon in Jaisalmer. Numbers vary from year to year. Usually in parties of 6-7 birds. However, on January 12, 1986 more than 400 birds were observed feeding in a field on the west side of the road leading to the Fossil Park, Jaisalmer (Phil Heath pers. comm.). Common rosefinch Carpodacus erythrinus (?): Three birds were recorded in the plantation along the Rajasthan Canal (Indira Gandhi Nahar) near Bajju on March 23, 1999. One male was in breeding plumage. Rated as very rare by Adam ( 1 873) at Sambhar Lake, who observed it on ‘one or two occasions’. Refer Adam, R.M. (1873): Notes on the birds of the Sambhar Lake and its vicinity. Stray Feathers 1: 361-404. Adam, R.M. (1874): Additional notes on the birds of the Sambhar Lake and its vicinity. Stray Feathers 2: 337-341. Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1987): Compact Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan. 2nd Edn. Oxford University Press, Bombay. Grjmmett, R., C. Inskipp & T. Inskipp (1998): Birds of the Indian Subcontinent. Christopher Helm, London. Manakadan, Ranjit & Aasheesh Pittie (2001): Standardised common and scientific names of the birds of the Indian subcontinent. Buceros Vol. 6, No. 1. Prakash, I. (1998): Koel boom at Jodhpur. Newsletter for Birdwatchers 38(6): 103-104. Rahmani, A.R. (1997): The effects of Indira Gandhi Nahar Project on the avifauna of the Thar desert. J. Bombay, nat. Hist. Soc. 94: 233-266. Sangha, H.S. (1994): Marbled teal in Rajasthan. Newsletter for Birdwatchers 34(2): 34. Black-headed bunting Emberiza melanocephala (?): I recorded one male on March 27, 1993 with house sparrows at the Sudasri water-hole, Desert National Park. Hume found the species in ‘simply millions’ at Sojat, Pali district (Whistler 1938). White-capped bunting Emberiza steward (W): I have recorded the species only from the eastern parts of the desert. Two males and one female were observed at Tal Chhapar, Churu district on February 1, 1998. Acknowledgements I thank Phil Heath, Ben King, Manoj Kulshreshtha, Rishad Naoroji, Bhagirath Singh and R.G. Soni for their field notes, Harsh Vardhan and Per Undeland for their congenial company in the field and Dr. Asad R. Rahmani for inspiration and valuable comments. Oct. 30, 1999 HARKIRAT SINGH SANGHA B-27, Gautam Marg, Hanuman Nagar, Jaipur 302 021, Rajasthan, India. E N C E S Sangha, H.S. (1995): Birds recorded in the Desert National Park, Rajasthan, India, Unpublished report to Oriental Bird Club, UK. Sangha, H.S. (1998): Flamingo surveys at Sambhar Lake (Rajasthan) India. IWRB Flamingo Specialist Group Newsletter 8: 24-25. Sangha, H.S. (2000): Recent sightings of Vanellus gregarius at Tal Chhapar and Revasa, Rajasthan. J. Bombay, nat. Hist. Soc. 97(2): 278-279. Sangha, H.S. & M. Kulshreshtha (1993): Birds recorded during a visit to the Desert National Park in summer 1993. In: Bird Conservation, Strategies for the Nineties and Beyond (Eds.: Verghese, A., S. Sridhar and A.K Chakravarthy), OS1. Bangalore. Sangha, H.S. & M. Kulshreshtha (1998): Sightings of Indian Skimmer in Rajasthan far from its fluvial habitat. Newsletter for Birdwatchers 38(5): 86. Sangha, H.S. & M. Kulshreshtha (1999): Little Tern Sterna albifrons found breeding in Rajasthan. Newsletter for Birdwatchers 39(4) : 63-64. Satheesan, S.M. & R.B. Grubh (1992): Bird and bat JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 125 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES collisions with aircraft in India at night. J. Bombay, nat. Hist. Soc. 89: 379-380. Soni, R.G. (1994): Checklist of Birds of Indira Gandhi Nahar Project - II (Rajasthan). Indian Forester 120: 929-935. Tiwari, J.K. (1991): Notes from Rajasthan on Pied Chat and Marbled Teal. Newsletter for Birdwatchers 31(5-6): 13. Tiwari, J.K. (1997): White-naped Tit Survey, Gujarat and Rajasthan, India. Bulletin Oriental Bird Club. 25: 06. Whistler, H. (1938): The ornithological survey of Jodhpur state. J. Bombay, nat. Hist. Soc. 40: 213-235. 1 8. STRANGE BEHAVIOUR IN THE RAT SNAKE PTYAS MUCOSUS, FAMILY COLUBRIDAE We observed the following incident on July 20, 2001 between 1535 to 1550 hrs outside our office — the Conservation Education Centre, Bombay Natural History Society, Goregaon, Mumbai. An Oriental magpie-robin ( Copsychus saularis) had laid four eggs in the battery box of a solar lamp post about three weeks earlier. The pale green eggs with reddish-brown spots were in a cup-shaped nest made of dry grass and twigs, resting in one comer of the battery box. The eggs were intact and were being guarded regularly by the male and incubated by the female till the afternoon of July 20, 2001. We heard loud and harsh alarm calls by the robin at around 1525 hrs. Initially, we ignored it, as this behaviour is common for the robin when an intruder such as jungle babbler, squirrel or monitor lizard comes close to the nest. This time, however, the calls were more intense and very loud. On looking at the lamp post, we saw a rat snake, Ptyas mucosus entering the battery box. As we went near to have a closer look, the snake slithered down, rushing towards some bushes to hide. We immediately opened the battery box to see the status of the nest and found that only one egg was left. We thought that the game was over, as three eggs had been eaten by the rat snake, but after an interval of 5 minutes, the robin started making similar alarm calls at the same place. We rushed back and were surprised to see the rat snake in the battery box again! Out of curiosity we opened the battery box, and found that the snake had regurgitated the eggshells. The fourth egg was left untouched by the snake. January 18, 2002 PRITI SAWANT ANURADHA RAJAGOPALAN* Bombay Natural History Society, Hornbill House, S.B. Singh Road, Dr. Salim Ali Chowk, Bombay 400 023, Maharashtra, India. * Present Address: B/206, Haritara Apts. B. T.Road, Mhatrewadi, Dahisar (W), Mumbai 400 068, Maharashtra, India. 19. FIRST RECORD OF BOULENGER’S TREE FROG CHIRIXALUS VITTATUS (ANURA: RHACOPHORJDAE) FROM MIZORAM, NORTHEAST INDIA Chirixalus vittatus was described by Boulenger (1887) from Bhamo, Upper Burma as Ixalus vittatus. The species was reported from India by Romer (1949) who collected two gravid females on June 7, 1944 near Kohima (then in Assam State). Khare and Kiyasetuo (1986) subsequently reported the species from Kohima, Nagaland. A single specimen was collected by Samraat Pawar and Sayantan Biswas, from a breeding site found near Ngengpui Wildlife Sanctuary, Lunglai district (Lai Autonomous District Council), southern Mizoram, during a survey conducted by them in 1998. The female was near a gelatinous foam-nest on Saccharum grass, about 3 m tall, nearly 50 m from the Forest Rest House of the Ngengpui Wildlife Sanctuary. They found the species to be locally common in 126 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES the area. A voucher specimen was collected (Regn No. ZSI A 9209, Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata). We compared our specimen with three non-type specimens from Nongkhor, Thailand to confirm our identification. This specimen therefore constitutes the first record of this species from Mizoram. Measurements of the specimen: Snout- vent length: 29.78 mm, Head length: 7.08 mm, Head width: 8.06 mm, Snout length: 4.04 mm, Eye diameter: 4.12 mm, Tympanum diameter: 1.62 mm, Inter-orbital length: 4.08 mm; Inter- narial length: 2.71 mm, Tibia length: 13.84 mm. Refer Boulenger, G.A. (1887): An account of the batrachians obtained in Burma by M.L. Fea, of the Genoa Civic Museum. Ann. Civ. Mus. Genova 2(5): 421-422. Khare, M.K. & Kiyasetuo ( 1 986): A new record of frog, Chirixalus vittatus (Boulenger, 1 887) from north- Acknowledgement I thank Dr. S.K. Chanda, Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata for allowing us to examine specimens of the species from Thailand. July 6, 2001 KAUSHIK DEUTI Zoological Survey of India, M-Block, New Alipore, Kolkata 700 053, West Bengal, India. SUSHIL DUTTA Department of Zoology, Utkal University, Bhubaneshwar 751 004, Orissa, India. N C E S eastern hills of India. Zoologica Orientals 3(1-2): 47-49. Romer, J.D. ( 1 949): Herpetological observations in Assam and Bengal. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 48(2): 374- 376. 20. ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF OREONECTES (INDOREONECTES) EVEZARDI DAY AND O. (I.) KERALENS1S RITA, BANARESCU AND N ALB ANT (PISCES: BALITORIDAE) The genus Oreonectes includes four subgenera comprising of ten species (Banarescu, and Nalbant 1995) distributed in Southeastern China, Northeast and Southeast Asia, and Western and Central India. The subgenus Indoreonectes Rita, Banarescu and Nalbant comprising of two species, namely evezardi Day (1878) and keralensis Rita, Banarescu and Nalbant (1978), is endemic to India. The species are characterized by the combination of the following characters: an elongate body, prolongation of the anterior nostrils into long nasal barbels, incomplete lateral line system, pelvic origin in advance of dorsal fin insertion, a dorsal and ventral adipose crest on the caudal peduncle and a rounded or straight caudal fin. O. (I.) evezardi described from Poona, Maharashtra in the northern Western Ghats is now known to have a wider distribution in the Krishna and Godavari basins, and in Madhya Pradesh, in the Pachmarhi Hills of the Satpura Range. Chacko et al. (1954) reported its occurrence further south in the Mettur Dam of the Cauvery system in Tamil Nadu. Jayaram et al. (1982), while reporting on the fish fauna of the Cauvery system, remarked that they did not find the species, though reported earlier by Chacko et al. (op. cit.). Later, Jayaram (1999) and Menon (1999), have inadvertently omitted the Cauvery system from the distributional range of the species. During routine faunistic surveys of conservation areas, one of us (SK) collected the species evezardi from the Biligiri Rangasamy Temple Wildlife Sanctuary (BRTWLS) in Karnataka from a tributary of the Cauvery river. Six specimens ranging in length from 25 mm to 45 mm SL, were collected from the following localities in BRTWLS, namely Girialla, Kabbanagatte and K. Gudi during February, 1999 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 127 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES and April, 2000. The specimens have been registered in the Reserve Collections of the Zoological Survey of India (Southern Regional Station). The present collection confirms the distribution of the species in the Cauvery river also. Incidentally, this is the first report of evezardi from Karnataka. However, the specimens from BRTWLS exhibit some differences from the descriptions of Day (1875-1878), in having a more elongate and slender body and certain other differences in body proportions, as follows: Head length in Day’s specimen is 5.5 times in TL, whereas in the present collections it is 4.68 - 4.95 times in TL. Body depth is 6 in Day’s specimen (vs 7.3 - 8.1), caudal 5 times (vs 5.33 - 5.88) in TL. Pectoral fin is longer than head, reaching % of the distance from pectoral to ventral fin origin, whereas in the specimens from BRTWLS the pectoral fins are shorter, reaching only a little more than half this distance. Though the proportion of eye in snout is given as 3 (also around 3 in the present collection), Day’s figure shows a specimen with a smaller snout. The lateral line is said to be indistinct, while it is fairly prominent and extends to almost half the pectoral fin length in a smaller specimen and up to the pectoral tip in a larger specimen studied. Hora and Law (1941) reported evezardi from Periyar River at Pambadumpara in Travancore Hills of Kerala and remarked on the variations exhibited in the colour pattern in this species. Subsequently, Rita et al. (1978) described O. (I.) keralensis from Periyar River at Pambadumpara, distinguishing the species from evezardi based on differences in colour pattern and relative lengths of nasal barbels. The nasal barbels are longer in evezardi , extending to middle of eye, whereas in keralensis it is said to be shorter reaching up to the anterior border of eye. The vertical bands on the body are broad and brown, and interrupted or incomplete, extending from the dorsal to the ventral side of the body in evezardi, whereas in keralensis these are narrow, dark and entire on the upper half of the body, and often split below the lateral line into streaks or spots. Rita et al. {op. cit.) remarked on the probability of Hora and Law’s specimens being keralensis. Menon (1987) included Pamba drainage in the distribution of keralensis, based on his study of fish collections from Sabarigiri hills. A study of loaches from the earlier collections, especially from Cardamom Hills in southern Western Ghats by Dr. G.U. Kurup in 1969, from Sabarigiri Hills by Dr. R.S. Pillai in 1981 and recently in 1999 from Periyar river by Mr. Chandran and other collections received for identification from Muvattupuzha and Santhamparai have all revealed the presence of keralensis and not evezardi in these areas. We reiterate the view of Rita et al. (1978) that the species present in the Travancore Hills is keralensis. Also, the specimens reported as evezardi from Periyar by Chacko (1948) before the description of keralensis and those reported by Zacharias et al. (1996), mostly based on Chacko {op. cit.), could also be keralensis. Biju et al. (2000) reported the occurrence of this species in Eravikulam National Park and Muvattupuzha river, from the cold waters at an altitude of 1,050 m in Muvattupuzha river and at a range of 1 ,600-2,200 m in Periyar river. From the above records, the present distributional range of keralensis is in the Periyar drainage, the Muvattupuzha river down to the Pamba river in the southern Western Ghats. It can be concluded that evezardi has a wider distribution in the Northern and Central Western Ghats above the Palghat gap and in the Satpura Range, whereas its congener is restricted to the higher ranges of the southern Western Ghats below the Palghat gap. Acknowledgements We wish to thank the Director, Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata and the Additional 128 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Director and Officer- in-Charge Dr. P.T. Cherian, S.R.S., Z.S.I., Chennai for facilities. Our sincere thanks are due to Dr. A.G.K. Menon for literature and guidance, and to Dr. P.T. Cherian for going through the manuscript. Refer Banarescu, P.M. & T.T. Nalbant (1995): A generical classification of Noemacheilinae with description of two new genera (Teleostei: Cypriniformes: Cobitidae). Trav. Mus. Hist. nat. “Grigore Antipa”, XXXV, pp.429-496. Biju, C.R., K.R. Thomas & C.R. Ajithkumar (2000): Ecology of hill streams of Western Ghats with special reference to fish community. Final Report pp. 203. Bombay Natural History Society, Mumbai. Chacko, P.I. ( 1 948): Development of fisheries of the Periyar lake. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 48: 191-192. Chacko, P.I., G.K. Kuriyan & S. Thyagarajan (1954): A survey of the fisheries of the Cauvery river. Contr. Freshw. Fish. Biol. Stn., Madras 12: 1-19. Day, F. (1875-1878): The Fishes of India being a natural history of the fishes known to inhabit the seas and freshwaters of India, Burma and Ceylon. Quaritsch, London, xx + 778 pp., pis. 195. Hora, S.L. & N.C. Law (1941): The freshwater fishes of Travancore. Rec. Ind. Mus. 43: 234-256. July 13, 2001 K. REMA DEVI T.J. INDRA S. KRISHNAN ZS1, Southern Regional Station, 100, Santhome High Road, Chennai 600 028. iNCES Jayaram, K.C. (1999): The freshwater fishes of the Indian Region. Narendra Publishing House, Delhi. Pp. 551, pis. I-XVIII. Jayaram, K.C., J. Venkateswarlu & M.B. Raghunathan (1982): A survey of the Cauvery River system with a major account of its fish fauna. Rec. zool. Surv. India, Misc. publ. Occ. pap. 36, pp. 115, pis. XII. Menon, A.G.K. (1987): The Fauna of India and adjacent countries, Pisces 4, Teleostei -Cobitoidea, Part 1 , Homalopteridae. Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta. Menon, A.G.K. (1999): Checklist Freshwater Fishes of India. Rec. zool. Surv. India, Occ. Pap. 175: 1-366. Rita, S.D., P.M. Banarescu & T.T. Nalbant (1978): Oreonectes ( Indoreonectes ) keralensis a new subgenus and species of loach from Kerala, India (Pisces, Cobitidae). Trav. Mus. Hist. Nat. ^ Grigore Antipa 19: 185-188. Zacharias, V.J., A.K. Bharadwaj & PC. Jacob (1996): Fish fauna of Periyar Tiger Reserve. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 93(1): 39-43. 21. REDISCOVERY OF CRITICALLY ENDANGERED AIR BREATHING CATFISH CL ARIAS DAYI HORA PISCES: CLARIDAE, AT MUDUMALAI WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, TAMIL NADU During fieldwork at Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary, Tamil Nadu, as part of our research program on “Diversity, Ecological Structure and Conservation of Threatened fishes of the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve (NBR)” we collected two specimens of air-breathing catfish Clarias dayi Hora, from Ombatta Swamp, a part of the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve. The species is commonly called the Malabar Clariid and Magur and popularly known as Masarai in Tamil and Muzhi in Malayalam. It was originally described from Wynaad in Kerala. The present collection is a rediscovery after 64 years at a new locality. Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary is situated in the Western Ghats of Nilgiri district, Tamil Nadu (11° 30'-l 1° 39' N; 76° 27-76° 43’ E). Its total area is 321 sq. km, including 103 sq. km of the National Park. Ombatta Todu forms Ombatta swamp before it joins Bidar halla, a tributary of river Moyar, the main water source for Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary. Earlier record Clarias dussumieri (nec Valenciennes) Day (partim), 1877, Fishes of India: 484; Day (partim), 1889, Fauna of British India, Fishes 1: 117. Clarias Dayi Hora, 1936, Rec. Indian Mus. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 129 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 38(3): 350, fig. 4c (type locality: Wynaad, Kerala); Misra (partim), 1976 Fauna of India, Pisces (2nd edn) 3:129. Clarias dussumieri dayi; Silas, 1952, Proc. nat. Inst. Sci. India. Day (1877) collected a single specimen (7 inches long) of this species from Wynaad in Kerala. But he misidentified the specimen as Clarias dussumieri Valenciennes (Day 1877, 1889). Later Hora (1936) re-examined Day’s collection and he described the same specimen as a new species Clarias dayi Hora. According to the IUCN category, it is almost extinct, as it has not been reported anywhere in India since it was first described by Hora in 1936. Despite much work in Western Ghats of Nilgiri, Wynaad hills (Hora 1937, 1938, 1942; Silas 1951a, b; Rajan 1955; Jayaram 1981; Jayaram eta/., 1982; RemaDevi and Indra 1988; Easa and Basha 1995; Easa and Shaji 1997) it has not been reported again. During this study, we did not find Clarias dayi Hora from the original type locality (Wynaad hills), but our present collection from Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary shows its presence and range extension in this sanctuary: a rediscovery after 64 years at a new locality. Diagnosis D. 70; P. 1/8; V. 1/5; A. 57; C. 16. Body elongate, head depressed; mouth terminal; 8 barbels, short, not extending beyond eyes; nasal barbels shorter than half of head length; dorsal fin inserted behind pectoral fin Refer Day, F. (1875-78): The fishes of India; being a natural history of the fishes known to inhabit the seas and freshwaters of India, Burma and Ceylon. London, xx + 788 pp., 195 pis. Day, F. (1889): The Fauna of British India, including Ceylon and Burma, Fishes, Vol. 1, 548 pp; 2, 509 pp. Taylor & Francis, London. Easa, P.S. & S.C. Basha (1995): A survey on the habitat and distribution of stream fishes in the Kerala part tip; pectoral spine strong, serrated on its outer edge only; colour dark on back, lighter on side. Distribution Day collected a single specimen from Wynaad hills, Western Ghats of Kerala, India (Day 1 877, 1 889; Hora 1 936; Misra 1 976; Talwar and Jhingran 1991). The present collection indicates a range extension to Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary, Tamil Nadu. Status Critically endangered (Molur and Walker 1998). Habitat Inhabits fast flowing streams and palustrine wetlands. Acknowledgments We thank the Forest Department of Tamil Nadu for permission to work in the Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary and Council of Scientific & Industrial Research (CSIR) for financial support. We also thank Mr. Mathan for assistance in fieldwork. April 2, 2001 A. MANIMEKALAN M. ARUNACHALAM Centre for Environmental Sciences, Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Alwarkurichi 62 7 412, Tirunelveli, Tamil Nadu, India. N C E S of the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve. KFR1 Research report No. 104. Kerala Forest Research Institute, Peechi, Trichur. Easa, P.S. & C.P. Shaji (1997): Freshwater fish diversity in Kerala, part of the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve. Current Sci. 73(2): 180-182. Hora, S.L. (1936): Siluroid fishes of India, Burma and Ceylon. VI. Fishes of the genus Clarias Gronovius. Rec. Indian Mus. 38(3): 347-351. 130 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Hora, S.L. (1937): Notes on fishes in the Indian Museum. XXVIII. On three collections of fish from Mysore and Coorg, South India. Rec. Indian Mus. 39(1): 5- 28 Hora, S.L. ( 1 938): Notes on fishes in the Indian Museum. XXXVIII. On the systematic position of Bagrus lonah Sykes with description of and remarks on other Glyptostemoid fishes from the Deccan. Rec. Indian Mus. 40(4): 363-375. Hora, S.L. (1942): Fishes of the Mysore state and of the neighbouring hill ranges of the Nilgiris, Wynaad and Coorg. Rec. Indian Mus. 44(2): 193-200. Jayaram, K.C. (1981): The Cauvery river ecosystem and the patterns of its fish distribution. Bull. Zool. Surv. India. 4(3): 289-294. Jayaram, K.C., T. Venkateswarlu & M.B. Ragunathan ( 1 982): A survey of the Cauvery river system with a major account of its fish fauna. Occ. Papers Zool. Surv. India 36, 115, 8 pis. Misra, K.C. (1976): The Fauna of India and adjacent countries. Pisces (2nd edn). 3. Teleostomi: 22. SOME INGENIOUS During a visit to Karwar, Karnataka State, I came across a peculiar method of catching the common marine catfish Arius dussumieri. This method seems to be unique to the region and adopted by amateur fishermen after a good deal of practice. I have already described some methods of catching live marine fish for display in aquaria ( Hornbill 1986(4 ): 11-15, 36). On May 27, 1990, amateur fishermen selected a tidal pool slightly high up on the beach. After heavy rains, at about 1630 hrs, I saw juveniles of Arius spp. coming in with the tide in huge numbers. Each fisherman targeted a fish and hit it repeatedly with a rubber slipper, so that the fish was temporarily stunned. It was then picked up carefully and placed in a tidal pool higher up on the beach, or merely put into a cloth bag. Sometimes the ‘hit’ resulted in the fish’s dorsal spine getting stuck in the slipper and the fisherman carefully removed it and put it in the bag or tidal pool. The fish swam very fast, and sometimes the fisherman merely pushed it towards the shore to incapacitate it. This method Cypriniformes, Siluridae. xxi + 367 pp, 15 pis. Molur, Sanjay & Sally Walker (Eds.) (1998): Report of the Workshop “Conservation Assessment and Management plan for freshwater fishes of India”, Zoo Outreach Organisation, Conservation Specialist Group, India, Coimbatore, India. 156 pp. Rajan, S. (1955): Notes on a collection of fish from the headwaters of the Bhavani river. South India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 53: 44-48. Rem a Devi, K. & T.J. Indra ( 1 988): Fishes of Silent Valley. Special issue, Fauna of Silent Valley, Kerala, India. Rec. zool. Surv. India. 84(1-4): 243-251. Silas, E.G. (1951a): On a new Cyprinid fish from Coorg, South India. J. Zool. Soc. India 3: 7-10. Silas, E.G. (1951b): Notes on the fishes of the genus Glyptothorax Blyth from Peninsular India, with description of a new species. J. Bombay nat. Hist Soc. 50: 367-370. Talwar, P.K. & A.G. Jhingran(1991): Inland Fishes, Vol. I & II. Oxford-IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, India. METHODS OF FISHING of fishing was repeated until the incoming stock of fish was exhausted. There were scores of fishermen, and there was enough for everyone to take home, the average catch being 250 to 300 fish in an hour. This went on from 1645 to 1915 hrs, and it is surmised that each person got about 500 to 600 fish. I tried my hand at this type of fishing, but could not catch more than six fish over half an hour. Either my aim was bad, or the blow was not enough to stun the fish, I was able to bring in about a dozen fish alive. Another unique aspect of this method was that it was done only on one day: I was informed that this phenomenon occurs only once a year. The other strange method of fishing involved the ‘hook and drag’ method. This was seen at the Girgaum Chowpatty Bay in South Mumbai, from the parapet wall at Marine Drive. Adult Mugil spp., Rates calcarifer, Polynemus heptadactylus, Strongylura strongylura, Hemirhamphus spp. were usually caught by this method, at high tide. The method involved whirling and releasing a non-baited line with a JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 131 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES single hook or multiple hooks. After the line hit September 28, 2001 VENKATESH N. HEGDE the water, it was pulled up rapidly, which resulted Department of Zoology ; Mithibai College, in the body of the fish getting embedded on the Vile Parle (W), Mumbai 400 056, hooks. The catch was then pulled up quickly. Maharashtra, India. 23. A NEW RECORD OF BRA CHYMER1A LASUS WALKER (HYMENOPTERA: CHALCIDIDAE) ON EUCHROMIA POLYMENA LINNAEUS (LEPIDOPTERA: SYNTOMIDAE) Euchromia polymena Linn, a diurnal moth is reportedly a pest of sweet potato in various parts of India (Lefroy 1909, Fletcher 1921, Ayyar 1940, Thomas and Jacob 1973, Hill 1994). According to its local abundance, it can become a serious pest defoliator (Hill 1994). While studying the biology of this pest, I observed a chalcid parasitoid emerging from lepidopteran pupae collected in the field. From the 10 pupae collected, 4 female parasitoids emerged. They were later identified as Brachymeria lasus (Walker), a polyphagous pupal parasitoid. Brachymeria lasus attacks a wide variety of agricultural pests. It is sometimes hyperparasitic. Narendran (1989) listed about 113 insects as hosts of the parasitic or hyperparasitic B. lasus in his monograph oriental chalcididae. Euchromia polymena was not recorded as a host in this list. Thus, it is a new host record of the parasitoid. Acknowledgements I thank Dr. Suresh Mohan Ghosh, Department of Zoology, Govt. College Madapally, Vatakara, Kerala for guidance, inspiration and encouragement and Dr. RM. Sureshan, Western Ghats Regional Station Zoological Survey of India, Calicut for encouragement. I also thank Prof. T.C. Narendran, Dept, of Zoology, University of Calicut, for identifying the parasitoid. July 2 1 , 2000 VINAYAN P. N AIR 3/ IV College Quarters, PO. Madappally College, Vatakara, Kerala 673 102, India. References Ayyar, T.V.R. (1940): Handbook of Economic Entomology. Govt. Press, Madras. Pp. 528. Fletcher, T.B. (1921): Annotated list of Indian Crop Pests. Suptd. Govt. Printing, Calcutta. Hill, Dennis S. (1994): Agricultural Entomology. Timber Press. Oregon, USA. Lefroy, H.M. (1909): Indian Insect Life. Calcutta. Narendran, T.C. (1989): Oriental Chalcididae (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea) Zoological Monograph. Dept, of Zoology, Calicut University. Thomas, M.J. & A. Jacob (1973): On the biology of Euchromia polymena Linn. (Amatidae: Lepidoptera), a pest of sweet potato. Agr. Res. Jou. Kerala 11(2): 168-69. 24. OVIPOSITION BEHAVIOUR OF PALEXOR1STA SOLENNIS WALKER, DIPTERA: TACHINIDAE, A TACHINID PARASITOID OF TEAK DEFOLIATOR, HYBLAEA PUERA CRAMER ( With one text-figure) Palexorista solennis (Diptera: Tachinidae) defoliator, Hyblaea puera Cramer (Lepidoptera: is one of the natural enemies of the teak Hyblaeidae), a destructive pest of teak (Tectona 132 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES grandis L.F.) (Nair et al. 1985, Nair 1988). The tachinids are dominant parasitoids (Beeson and Chatterjee 1939, Sudheendrakumar 1986) and have been recorded at various places (Beeson 1941, Gokulpur 1969, Walcher 1977, Nair et al. 1985, Sudheendrakumar 1986). In intensively managed commercial plantations, too, this parasitoid occurs as a major factor that reduces the defoliator population by 54.54% (Loganathan and David, unpublished). Understanding the steps in parasitism under natural conditions will be useful when these parasitoids are mass cultured in a laboratory. We, therefore, studied the oviposition behaviour of this potential parasitoid in an intensively managed teak plantation at Veeravanallur, Tamil Nadu in 1996 and the results are reported here. The oviposition behaviour of female tachinids was studied before and after oviposition by closely watching thirty adult female parasitoids randomly selected in the plantation. Observations on host selection, number of attempts, duration of each attempt and mode of oviposition were noted. The dipteran parasitoids use both the tarsi and proboscis while searching the host (Nettles 1982). In the first step of host-habitat selection, the female tachinid first randomly screens the leaf folds in which the second or third instar defoliator larvae take shelter (Fig.l). After locating a suitable leaf fold, the fly alights and walks about the leaf fold. It then drums the leaf fold with its fore and hind legs. According to Klomp and Teerink (1962), drumming sets up vibrations in the host, which the female parasitoid monitors, to determine the host size and in turn regulate the number of eggs deposited. In this case, drumming caused the larvae to peep out from the anterior or posterior end of the leaf fold. The fly stayed put, stretching and bending its oviscapt to lay the egg on the heads, legs or thoracic segments of the larvae Oviscapt ejection and oviposition maggot Lorva peeps out in normal position Larva comes out upside down mean depth (0.8 cm) SOIL puparium Fig. 1 : Oviposition behaviour and development of Palexorista solennis JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 133 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES ventrally or dorsally, according to the position of the host larva. Cushman (1926) described several categories of ectoparasitoids based on the habit of placing eggs on the host. The location of egg on the host is often specific. Nasonia vitripennis (Walker), another tachinid parasitoid, deposits eggs on the ventral or dorsal area of the host (Wylie 1958). As the dipteran parasitoids generally lack a piercing ovipositor, their eggs are either attached to the substrate or to the host (Askew 1971). The fly often failed to deposit the egg as the larva would withdraw into the leaf fold, but it persisted until it succeeded. The fly made 1-8 attempts, the average being 4.6 (n=30). The fly spent 5.0 - 25.32 minutes in the process, the average being 15.54 minutes. After laying the egg, the tachinid flew away. Each host larva may bear one or two eggs of the tachinid owing to repeated oviposition by the same fly or another fly. On hatching, the tachinid maggot penetrates the body wall of the host defoliator larva, leaving a black lesion at the point of entry. The maggot developed in the thoracic region, moved to the abdomen as it matured. It finally escaped from Refer Askew, R. R. (1971): Parasitic Insects. American Elsevier Press, New York. Pp 371. Beeson, C.F.C & S.N. Chatterjee (1939): Further notes on the biology of teak defoliators in India. Indian For. (NS) Ent. 5(5): 357-379. Beeson, C.F.C. (1941): The Ecology and Control of Forest Insects of India and Neighbouring Countries. Vasant Press, Delira Dun. Pp 767. Cushman, R. A. ( 1 926): Location of individual hosts versus systematic relation of host-species as a determining factor in parasitic attack. Proc. Ent. Soc. Wash. 28: 5-6. Gokulpur, R.S. (1969): Record of tachinids from Central India. Indian For. 95(3): 188-189. Klomp, H. & B.J. Teerink (1962): Host selection and number of eggs per oviposition in the egg-parasite Trichogramma embryophagum Htg. Nature (Lond.) 195: 1020-1021. NA1R, K.S.S., V.V. SUDHEENDRAKUMAR, R.V. VARMA & K.C. Chacko (1985): Studies on the seasonal the host by piercing the integument with its prothoracic hooks. It then drops to the soil for pupation, often burrowing 8 mm below the soil surface. Rarely does it pupate in the defoliator leaf fold. The adult fly emerges from the puparium in 6-7 days. Acknowledgements The authors are grateful to Dr. V. V. Sudheendrakumar, Faculty of Entomology, Kerala Forest Research Institute, Peechi for identifying the parasitoid. The financial assistance provided by M/s. Sterling Magnum (India) Ltd., Chennai is gratefully acknowledged. November 1, 1999 J. LOGANATHAN* P. M. M. DAVID Department of Agricultural Entomology, Agricultural College and Research Institute, Killikulam 628 252, Tamil Nadu, India. * Present address: Research Scholar, Division of Entomology, I ART, New Delhi 110 012, India. ; n c e s incidence of the defoliators and the effects of defoliation on volume increment of teak. KFRI Res. Report No. 30, Peechi : 78 p. Nair, K.S.S. (1988): The teak defoliator in Kerala, India. In: Dynamics of Forest Insect Populations, Patterns, Causes, Implications, (Ed.: Berryman, Alan A.). Oxford and IBH, New Delhi. Pp 268 - 289. Nettles, W.C. ( 1 982): Contact stimulants from Heliothis virescens that influence the behaviour of females of the tachinid, Eucelatoria bryani. J. Chem. Ecol 8: 1183-1191. Sudheendrakumar, V.V. (1986) : Studies on the natural enemies of the teak pests, Hyblaea puera and Eutectona machaeralis. KFRI Res. Report No. 38, Peechi. 23p. Walcher, H.P. (1977): Biological control of forest insects. Ann. Rev. Ent. 22: 1-22. Wylie, H. G. (1958): Factors that affect host finding by Nasonia vitripennis (Walker). Can. Ent. 90: 597- 608. 134 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR 2002 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 25. FURTHER CONTRIBUTION ON THE DIPTERA (INSECTA) FAUNA OF ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS An insular forest ecosystem along with tropical climate provides ideal niches for the rich insect fauna of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Schiner ( 1 868) was the first to describe the dipteran fauna from the islands, and since then many workers have made substantial contributions in this field. The present paper is based on the collection of the Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata, as well as information on record. In this communication, the distributional records of the species have been considered only from Indian limits. The species with a single asterisk represent new records (12 species) from these Islands and with double asterisk denote new locality records (6 species) within the bay Islands. Order: Diptera Suborder: Nematocera A) Family: Tipulidae * 1 . Limonia ( Euglochina ) saltern (Doleschall) Limnobia saltens Doleschall, 1857, Nat. Tijd. Ned. -Indie. 14: 390. Material examined: 1M, Shompen village, Great Nicobar, 10. iv. 1966, coll. A. Daniel and H.K. Bhowmick. Distribution: Nicobar Islands and Kerala. B) Family: Sciaridae *2. Phorodonta exacta (Brunetti) Sciara exacta Brunetti, 1912, Fauna. Brit. India. Dipt. Nematocera 2: 132. Material examined: 2F, Havelock, South Andaman, 1 l.xi.1997, coll. S.K. Mondal & K.L. Bhatta. Distribution: Andaman Is. and W. Bengal. Suborder: Brachycera C) Family: Bombyliidae **3. Ligyra flaviventris (Doleschall) Anthrax flaviventris Doleschall, 1 857, Nat. Tijd. Ned.- Indie. 14: 400. Material examined: 2F, 4 km from Hut Bay, Little Andaman, 1 7.i. 1 989; 22.L1989; IF, 3 l.i. 1989, coll. A.N.T. Joseph. Distribution: Andaman and Nicobar Islands and Kerala. Suborder: Cyclorrhapha D) Family: Syrphidae *4. Dideopsis aegrotus (Fabricius) Eristalis aegrota Fabricius, 1805, Syst. Antliat : 243. Material examined: 1M, Wright Myo, South Andaman, 24.iii.1964, coll. B.S. Lamba. Distribution: Andaman Islands, Meghalaya, Tripura and West Bengal. **5. Ischiodon scutellaris (Fabricius) Scaeva scutellaris Fabricius, 1805, Syst. Antliat : 252. Material examined: 1M, Galathea Bay, Great Nicobar, 16.iii.1966, coll. A. Daniel & H.K. Bhowmick. Distribution: Widely distributed in India including Andaman and Nicobar Islands. 6. Eristalinus aeneus var. taphicus (Wiedemann) Eristalis taphicus Wiedemann, 1830, Aussereurop. zweifl Insekt. 2: 191. Material examined: 1M, Casuarina Bay, Great Nicobar, 1966, coll. A. Daniel & H.K. Bhowmick. Distribution: Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Maharashtra and Uttar Pradesh. *7. Pseuderistalis fascipennis Thompson Eristalis maculipennis de Meijere, 1908, Tijd. Ent. 51: 261. Material examined: 1M, Manarghat, South Andaman, 1 .iv. 1 964, coll. B.S. Lamba. Distribution: Andaman Islands and Assam. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 135 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES E) Family: Micropezidae 8. Mimegralla albitarsis splendens (Wiedemann) Calobata splendens Wiedemann, 1830, Aussereurop. zweifl Insekt. 2: 539. Material examined: 2F, Campbell Bay, Great Nicobar, 1 4.iii. 1 964; 1M, 16.iii.1964, coll. A. Daniel and H.K. Bhowmick. Distribution: Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Delhi, Maharashtra and Uttar Pradesh. F) Family: Tephritidae **9. Dacus (Zeugodacus) tau (Walker) Dasyneura tau Walker, 1849, List Dipt. Colin Br. Mus. 4: 1074. Material examined: IF, Great Nicobar, 1 7.iv. 1 964, coll. A. Daniel & H.K. Bhowmick. Distribution: Widely distributed in India including Andaman and Nicobar Islands. G) Family: Sepsidae *10. Australosepsis niveipennis (Becker) Sepsis niveipennis Becker, 1903, Mitt, zool. Mus. Berl. 2(3): 143. Material examined: 5M, 2F, Nancowrie Bay, Great Nicobar, 13.V.1966, coll. A. Daniel and H.K. Bhowmick. Distribution: Widely distributed in India including Andaman and Nicobar Islands. H) Family: Muscidae *11. Stomoxys calcitrans (Linnaeus) Conops calcitrans Linnaeus, 1758, Syst. Nat. Ed. 10: 604. Material examined: 1M, Wright Myo, South Andaman, 13.V.1988, coll. B. Mitra. Distribution: Widely distributed in India including Andaman and Nicobar Islands. I) Family: Calliphoridae *12. Bengalia torosa (Wiedemann) Musca jejuna Fabricius, 1794, Ent. Syst. 4: 312. Musca torosa Wiedemann, 1819, Zool. Mag. (misidentification) Material examined: 1M, Rajatgarh, Baratang, S. Andaman, 22.iii. 1964, coll. B.S. Lamba. Distribution: All the states of India including Andaman & Nicobar Islands. *13. Bengalia varicolor (Fabricius) Musca varicolor Fabricius, 1805, Syst. Ant l i at. 296. Material examined: 2M, Rajatgarh, Baratang, S. Andaman, 22.iii.1964. coll. B.S. Lamba. Distribution: Andaman & Nicobar Islands, Kerala and Tamil Nadu. *14. Chrysomya megacephala (Fabricius) Musca megacephala Fabricius, 1 794, Syst. Ent. 4: 317. Material examined: 1M, Delanipur, Port Blair, 7.vi.l982, coll. V. Arumugam. Distribution: Common in all the states of India including Andaman and Nicobar Islands. *15. Chrysomya rufifacies (Macquart) Lucilia orientalis Macquart, 1842, Mem. Soc. Sci. Agric. Lille, 2: 303 (1843: 146) Material examined: 1M, Rajatgarh, Baratang, S. Andaman, 22.iii.1964 coll. B.S. Lamba. Distribution: Common in India including Andaman and Nicobar Islands. J) Family: Sarcophagidae **16. Boettcherisca (s. str.) peregrina (Robineau-Desvoidy) Myophora peregrina Robineau-Desvoidy, 1830, Mem. Pres. Acad. Sci. Inst. Fr. (2): 356. Material examined: 1M, Campbell Bay, Great Nicobar, 22.iii.19 66, coll. A. Daniel and H.K. Bhowmick. Distribution: Widely distributed in India including Andaman and Nicobar Islands. 136 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES **17. Parasarcophaga (5. sir.) albiceps (Meigen) Sarcophaga albiceps Meigen, 1826, Syst. Beschr. europ. zweifl Insekt. 5: 22. Material examined: 1M, Horticulture Garden, Haddo, Port Blair, Andaman Island, 2.iii. 1964, coll. B.S. Lamba; 1M, Netajinagar, Little Andaman, 1 8.i. 1 988 coll. A.N.T. Joseph; IF, Galathea Bay, Great Nicobar, 28.iii.1966, coll. A. Daniel, & H.K. Bhowmick. Distribution: Common in all parts of India including Andaman and Nicobar Islands. **18. Parasarcophaga ( Liosarcophaga ) dux (Thomson) Sarcophaga dux Thomson, 1868, K. svenska Fregatten Eugenies Resa, Dipt., 2: 534. Material examined: 1M, Campbell Bay, 3.iii.l966, coll. A. Daniel and H.K. Bhowmick. Distribution: Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Assam, Bihar, Kashmir, Maharashtra, Meghalaya, Orissa, Punjab, Tamil Nadu, Tripura, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal. Acknowledgements We thank Dr. J.R.B. Alfred, Director, Zoological Survey of India, for study material, Dr. S.K. Mitra, Jt. Director for facilities and Dr. M. Datta, Scientist ‘SE’ and officer-in-charge, Diptera section for constant encouragement and valuable advice. November 23, 1999 P. PARUI B. MITRA M. MUKHERJEE R.S. MRIDHA M-Block, New Alipore, Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata 700 053, West Bengal, India. Reference Schiner, I.R. (1868): Diptera, in Reise der Osterreichischen Fregatte Novara, Zool. Theil. 2: 1-388. 26. SEASONAL OCCURRENCE OF MELANITIS LEDA ISMENE (CRAMER), SATYRIDAE: LEPIDOPTERA, WITH COMMENTS ON ITS DRY AND WET SEASON FORMS ( With one text-figure ) A lelanitis leda ismene (Cramer) a butterfly of Family Satyridae (Order Lepidoptera) is widespread in West Africa, Southeast Asia and Australia (Bingham 1905, Talbot 1947, Grist and Lever 1969, Eliot 1992). It is the only nocturnal Rhopaloceran and is commonly found near fluorescent lights. The species is reported to be a pest of paddy (Ayyar 1961, Sajjan and Singh 1 972) and has been collected from different parts of north India (Rose and Sharma 1 998), but there is hardly any report on the biology of this species. Sajjan and Singh (1972) only mentioned the availability of its horned caterpillar on paddy in September-October, and the life span of the adults as 18-20 days. This study was intended to observe the occurrence of wet and dry season forms and to examine the possible reasons for their appearance. The incidence of the dry and wet season forms in 1998 was recorded. The adults of Melanitis leda ismene were collected from the bushes and dry leaves under the forest trees, close to paddy fields around Chandigarh, where they hide during the day. A strip of forestland measuring 1 00 m x 40 m was selected for the collection of butterflies. Night JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 137 NUMBER MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Fig. 1: Occurrence of dry and wet season forms of Melanitis leda ismene (Cramer) during 1 998 in Chandigarh collection was made from 10 fluorescent lights in the same area. Regular surveys throughout 1998 showed that the adults appear during the last week of July in low numbers. During August, the butterflies were available in low numbers and about 4 to 7 adults were caught each day. All the adults caught during July and August were the wet season forms. The population of the wet season form started rising during the first week of September and reached a peak by end September. No dry season form was seen up to the end of September. In the beginning of October, the dry season form began to appear. To start with, the proportion of dry season form was low, but by the end of October, it was 12:1. The overall population reaches a maximum in October (Fig. 1), although the peak population of the wet season form was attained in September. Clearly, the butterfly is active from July to October, when paddy is available. The butterfly appears to undergo diapause from the last week of November to last week of July. It is also evident that the butterfly undergoes more than two active generations, the life cycle being of 20-22 days. Dry and wet season forms are seen in many Rhopalocera (Bingham 1905, Talbot 1947). These forms show marked differences in wing markings. Generally, wet season forms have ocelli on both surfaces of the wings and are known as ocellated forms. The dry season forms are devoid of such ocelli. Melanitis leda ismene wet and dry season forms (Ph. 1-4) are recorded here. This species is a pest of paddy, but can also survive on other grasses. The caterpillars of the first generation, which feed on paddy leaves, mature into adults of the wet season form. With the ripening of the paddy leaves, some of the caterpillars of the subsequent generations start feeding on grasses, and mature into the dry season form. No satisfactory explanation has been offered for their appearance, and for their common incidence during certain periods. It appears that change of host is responsible for the appearance of dry season forms. This also explains the occurrence of both forms during the transition period. In most cases, the so called wet and dry season forms appear in the presence or absence of the monsoon, but this does not explain the morphological changes fully. Acknowledgements I thank the Chairman, Department of Zoology, Panjab University, Chandigarh for research facilities and Prof. H.R. Pajni for constructive criticism. January 10, 2001 V.K. WALIA Department of Zoology, Panjab University, Chandigarh 160 014, Punjab, India. 138 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES References Ayyar, T.V.R. (1963): Handbook of Economic Entomology for South India. Govt. Press, Madras, pp. 154. Bingham, C.T. (1905): The Fauna of British India, including Ceylon and Burma. Butterflies. Francis and Taylor, London, Vol. 1: 1-511, pis. 1-110. Eliot, J.N. (1992): The butterflies of the Malay Peninsula by A. Steven Corbet and H.M. Pendlebury. 4th Edn. Malay Nat. Soc. viii+595 pp. 69. Grist, D.H. & R.J.A.W. Lever (1969): Pests of Rice. Longmans, London, pp. 161-162. Rose. H.S. & Narender Sharma ( 1 998): Role of genitalia in the identification of Melanitis species (Lepidoptera: Satyridae). Uttar Pradesh J. Zoo. 18(2): 81-86. Sajjan, S.S. & J. Singh (1972): Occurrence of homed caterpillar of Rice, Melanitis leda ismene (Cramer) Satyridae: Lepidoptera on paddy in Punjab. Science and Cult. 38(4): 215-216. Talbot, G. (1947): Fauna of British India including Ceylon and Burma, Butterflies Taylor and Francis, London. Vol. 2. pp. 506. 27. MOLLUSCAN FAUNA AND ITS DISTRIBUTION IN THE WILD ASS SANCTUARY Very little is known about minor animal forms, namely plankton, annelids, arthropods, molluscs, in almost all the Protected Areas in the country. No work has been conducted on the molluscan fauna of the Wild Ass Sanctuary (WAS), hence an attempt was made to study their diversity in the Sanctuary. From the management point of view, these animals are considered minor for the protected area, but they are found in a variety of habitats, show many adaptations and play a key role in maintenance of the habitat, which they share with more conspicuous wildlife, to which the majority of management practices are addressed in our country. The Wild Ass Sanctuary is spread mainly over the Little Rann of Kutch, Gujarat State. It is situated between 23° 10' and 23° 45' N, and between 70° 45' and 71° 45' E. The Little Rann (4,953.59 sq. km) is a vast saline desert, typically arid and one of its kind in the world. It experiences a maximum temperature of 44 °C and a minimum of 5 °C, and receives 125 to 400 mm of rainfall. Three major rivers from the east, Banas, Saraswati and Rupen, inundate the Little Rann, where sea water also enters, and make a huge wetland. The Little Rann is just above sea level, and the Wild Ass Sanctuary is spread over five districts namely Rajkot, Surendranagar, Mehsana, Banaskantha and Kutch. The study was conducted from December 1 , 1997 to July 15, 1998. The material was collected in the waterbodies, muddy areas, creeks and a variety of habitats. The molluscs were narcotised by magnesium sulphate before preservation in 4% formaline or 70% alcohol. The samples were labeled and identified in the laboratory using standard references such as Hornell (1951), Kundu (1965), Menon et al. (1961) and Tonapi (1980). The Zoological Survey of India confirmed the identifications. 12 species (Table 1) representing 12 mollusc families were collected and identified; out of these 7 species belonged to 7 freshwater families and 5 to 5 brackish water families. Acknowledgements We thank Dr. H. S. Singh, Director, Gujarat Ecological Education and Research Foundation (GEER Foundation), Gandhinagar for financial support, Mr. B.H. Patel (D.C.F. GEER Foundation), Mr. M.B. Patel (R.F.O. GEER Foundation) and Mr. S.A. Babi (A.C.F. Wild Ass Sanctuary, Dhrangadhra) and his staff, for their kind cooperation and help, and the ZSI for identifications. April 28, 1999 V.C. SONI, K.P. BHALODIA, S.M. DAVE, V.J. BHUVA Dept, of Biosciences, Saurashtra University, Rajkot 360 005, Gujarat, India. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 139 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Table 1 CHECKLIST OF MOLLUSCAN FAUNA AND ITS DISTRIBUTION IN THE WILD ASS SANCTUARY S.No. Species/Family Distribution Status 1 Thiara (Melanoides) tuberculata (Thiaridae) Khareshwar Kund (Narali), Juni Anjiyasar C gam talav, Chikhali gam talav. 2 Ariophanta bajadera (Ariophantidae) Raghu ki gam talav, Boru talav (Rann kathe - near Khod), Mardak bet, Kuda gam talav, C Naranpura gam talav, Chikhali gam talav, N imaknagar gam talav, Garamadi Check Dam No. 1 , Vajiyasar gam talav, Wasraj Solanki talav, (Wasaraj Solanki bet, slightly saline water), Juni Anjiyasar gam talav, Talav near Shiyal tekari (Amarapar), Sahebrana bet, Behai talav (Kajarada), Masali gam talav, Kalyanpura- Santalpur gam talav, Pipli gam talav. 3. Lymnaea (Pseudosuccinea) luteola (Lymnaeidae) Kalyanpura-Santalpur gam talav, Machchhu river C (Near Maliya), Koparani Sim talav, Bandhparo talav (Visnagar), Mandraki sim talav. 4. Bellamya dissimilis (Viviparidae) Vajiyasar gam talav, Naranpura gam talav, C Wasraj Solanki bet, Kali talav, Ranisar gam talav, Patasar talav (Khod), Bhanguria bet, Mardak bet, Sahabrana bet, Near Surajbari creek, Bhangarwa bet, Koridu talav (Navi Enjar), Chhanasara Dam (Chhanasara), Bhadari talav (Near Chikhali). 5. Zoo teens insular is (Subulinidae) New Kuda gam talav, Shedwa bet, Mardak bet, C Wasraj Solanki talav (bet), Jhilandhar bet, Juni Anjiyasar gam talav, Vajiyasar talav (Near Tundi tower), Pung bet, Khijadia bet, Jilkeshwar Kund (Jhilandhar bet), Jesra, Chhanasara Dam, Jagamal bet, Dhan bet, Shahensawali talav (Navi Anjiyasar), Nada bet, Kakindiya bet, Masali village Dhasi- 1 , Dugara village Dhasi, Bhangarawa bet, Thar (East from Gangasar talav-Palaswa), Boru village Dhasi-3, Masali village Dhasi-4, Naleshwar Temple (Jhilandhar bet), Rana bet, Gajetiya bet, Gaun bet, Ratadia bet, Sahebrana bet, Garamadi Village Dhasi, Nanda bet, Keshmara bet, Handi bet, Koparani (Near Camp Site), Ikadia grass plot, Khijariya bet, Akoria bet. 6. lndoplanorbis exustus (Planorbidae) Vajiyasar gam talav, Kali talav, Nimaknagar gam talav, C Raghuki talav, Bodu talav (Khod), Patasar talav (Khod), Kuda gam talav, Tundi talav, Wasraj Solanki talav (Wasraj Solanki bet), Jilkeshwar Kund, (Jhilandhar bet), Dungariala talav (Vejalpar), Khijadia bet, Kumbharia gam talav, Sudamani talav (Rann kathe - Venasar), Koridu talav 140 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Table 1 (contd.) CHECKLIST OF MOLLUSCAN FAUNA AND ITS DISTRIBUTION IN THE WILD ASS SANCTUARY S.No. Species/Family Distribution Status 7 8 9 10 11 12 (Nava Enjar), Lakhiar talav (Tikar), Mandraki sim talav, Mandraki gam talav, Venasar gam talav, Sukhpar Dam (Sukhpar), Varahi talav (Pung bet), Ajitgadh gam talav, Patasar talav (Khod), Chikhali gam talav, Behai talav (Rann-kathe- Kajarada), Savalasari talav (Near Vavania), Juni Anjiyasar gam talav. Navi Anjiyasar gam talav, Chovishi talav (Near Nanda), Bhagasar talav (Nava Ghatila), Pipli gam talav. Lamellidens sp. (Unionidae) Jadeshar talav (Juna Ghatila). Cerithidea (Cerithideopsilla) Nimaknagar, Kakindia bet, Nada bet, Bhanguria bet, cingulata (Potamididae) Bandarvalo (Near Vavania), Shedwa bet, Tundi (near Kuda) Natica tigrina (Naticidae) Thais lacera (Muricidae) Anadara antiguata (Arcidae) Meretrix sp. (Veneridae) Mardak bet. Nimaknagar, Ikadia bet, Mardak bet, Andheriwan bet, Koparani Dhasi, Near Kuda. Mardak bet, Surajbari creek, Nimaknagar. Nimaknagar, Surajbari creek. R C R C C C Abbreviations: C = Common, R = Rare (but may be common in other areas). References Hornell, J. (1951): The study of Indian Molluscs. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 48: 543-569 & 750-774. Kundu, H.L. (1965): On the Marine Fauna of the Gulf of Kutch. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 62(1): 86-103. Menon, P.K.B., A.K. Datta Gupta & D. Das Gupta (1961 ). On the Marine Fauna of the Gulf of Kutch. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 58(2): 476-494. Tonapi, G.T. (1980): Freshwater animals of India. Oxford &IBH Publishing Co. Pp. 341. 28. FIRST RECORD OF BOSMINA TR1PURAE KORINEK ET AL., 1999 (CRUSTACEA: CLADOCERA: BOSMINIDAE) FROM ASSAM During a routine survey of water bodies of Assam State Zoo and Botanical Garden, Guwahati, Assam (26.10° N, 92.49° E) in 1997- 1998, 1 came across several females of Bosmina tripur ae, a Bosminid cladoceran. The species was described as new to science from Tamil Nadu in India (Korinek et al. , 1 999). Based on the several females collected, a brief description of the species is given. 1999. Bosmina tripur ae Korinek et al ., Hydrobiologia, 392: 241. Female: Body size 0.45-0.64 mm in length, 0.16-0.24 mm in width. Shape almost oval. Head and eye large. Head with two frontal setae near rostrum. Antennules fused with rostrum, hardly reaching one-third the length of JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 141 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES the body. Antennae short, with antennal setation 0-0- 1-3/1 -1-3. Setae long. Posterodorsal corner of valve angular, posteroventral comer ends in an obliquely directed shell spine (mucro) and is about 2.1 mm long. Seta Kurzi lies just above the commencement of mucro. Anterior ventral valve has several plumose setae. Postabdomen short, quadrangular and ends in a long stout claw. Claw with three groups of spines, proximal pecten of 5-7 small spines, intermediate pecten of 6-8 stout, strong spines which increase in length distally, distal pecten of 10-12 spines continuing distally into minute spinules up to tip of claw. The above description of Bosmina tripur ae conforms well with the description of the species given by Korinek et al ., 1999, except that the present material is larger in size, and therefore varies in the number of spines in the claws. Saha and Bhattacharya (1991) recorded the genus from Tripura. Later, Korinek et al. (1999) studied the same material and treated it as a new species. However, Korinek et al. (loc. cit.) described the species from another conspecific population from Tamil Nadu. The species was found to occur in association with other cladocerans, namely Daphnia sp., Ceriodaphnia sp., Moina sp. and Simocephalus sp. The present report of the species thus extends its distribution. Acknowledgments I thank Dr. I.K. Bhattacharjee, Head, Department of Zoology, Cotton College, Guwahati, for facilities. I also thank Dr. Q.H. Baqri, Addnl Director, Desert Regional Station, Zoological Survey of India, Jodhpur, for facilities and Dr. T. Bhattacharya, Professor, Dept of Zoology, Vidyasagar University, West Bengal, for identifying the specimens. January 24, 200 1 BIKRAMJIT SINHA Ecology Laboratory, Department of Zoology, Cotton College, Guwahati, Assam, India. Present Address: North Eastern Region Community Resource Management Society, Sympli Building, Near Law College, Dharketi, Shillong 793 001, Meghalaya, India. References Korinek, V., R.K. Saha & T. Bhattacharya (1999): A new member of the subgenus Sinobosmina Leider, 1957: Bosmina tripurae sp. nov. (Crustacea, Cladocera) from India. Hydrobiologia 392: 241-247 Saha, R.K. & T. Bhattacharya (1991): Dispersion pattern of Cladocera in two shallow ponds. J. Ini. Fish Soc. India 23:27-33. 29. ON THE DAMAGE CAUSED TO THE GREEN MUSSEL PERNA VIRIDIS BY PINNOTHERID CRAB PINNOTHERES CASTA ANTONY & KUTTYAMMA, 1971 ALONG THE CALICUT COAST The occurrence of pea crab Pinnotheres in oysters, clams, ascidians, holothurians and brachiopods has been reported from various parts of the world (Thompson 1835, Tesch 1918, Chhapgar 1955, Munsueti 1955, Yonge 1960 and Durve 1960). Silas and Alagarswami (1967) reviewed the pea-crabs {Pinnotheres spp.) and dealt with their systematics, ecology, biology and ethology. They also studied their occurrence and the effects of their infestation on Meretrix casta from the southwest coast of India. Antony and Kuttyamma (1971) described a new species of Pinnotheres , P. casta from Meretrix casta , which Silas and Alagarswami (1967) had left unnamed. Information on the pea crabs of India is rather meagre, but for the study of Silas and Alagarswami (1967). Pea crabs are small, with carapace width ranging from 10-12 mm. The genus is recognized by the third pair of walking legs (WL) which are longer than other pairs, and dactyli of 3rd and 4th walking legs being larger than the 1st and 2nd 142 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES walking legs. Pinnotheres casta is distinguished from other species of the genus by its orbicular carapace. Green mussels form an important subsidiary fishery along the west coast of Malabar, Kerala. About 5,400 metric tonnes of green mussels are harvested along the southwest coast annually. Pinnotherid infestation causes considerable loss to the mussel-catching fisherman. Two hundred green mussels were collected from the mussel beds off West Hill beach, Kozhikode during January 1 998. The mussels were opened, and the Pinnotherid crabs removed from the mantle cavity. The soft parts of the mussels were weighed to the nearest milligram and the damage caused by Pinnotheres was noted. The wet weight, dry weight, fat and protein contents of the infested and non-infested mussels were analysed and tabulated (Tables 1 & 2). The average wet weight of the mussels infested by the crab was 6.20 g, whereas that of non-infested crabs was 1 1 . 1 8 g. The average dry weight of the infested mussel was 1.10 g, but that of non-infested was 2.77 g indicating a loss of about 55.45% of wet weight and 39.7% of dry weight (Table 1). The average protein content of infested and non-infested mussels was 56% and 64.5% respectively. The fat content was 8.66% in the non-infested mussels and 5.66% in the infested mussels. The incidence of infestation was found to be 11% during January 1998. Silas and Alagarswami (1967) found that 48% of the clams ( Meretrix casta) examined from Malpe (southwest coast of India) harbored the Pinnotherid crab; 83.1% of the infestation had one crab, 13.1% had two and 3.8% had 3 crabs. In this case, however, 90% of Perna viridis had only one crab and 10% had two crabs. Silas and Alagarswami (1967) found that Pinnotheres were parasitic on Meretrix casta. Strauber (1942), and Christiansen & McDermitt (1958) recorded them on the American oyster Ostrea virginica. Our observation also confirms the parasitic nature of Pinnotheres , and Perna Table 1 WET WEIGHT AND DRY WEIGHT OF GREEN MUSSEL (PERNA VIRIDIS ) INFESTED BY PINNOTHERID CRAB Wet Weight Dry Weight Infested Non- Infested Non- (g) Infested (g) (g) Infested (g) 1. 6.05 13.00 1.005 2. 5.90 12.80 0.10 3. 7.30 10.55 1.32 3.05 4. 4.37 9.02 0.64 3.15 5. 8.67 12.95 1.60 2.57 6. 4.91 11.32 0.75 2.05 7. 7.00 14.17 1.05 4.00 8. 6.90 7.95 1.15 2.94 9. 9.40 8.87 1.90 3.42 10. 4.84 0.80 1.73 11. 6.50 1.32 2.02 12. 6.57 1.55 13. 9.25 1.93 14. 8.49 1.15 15. 6.88 0.71 16. 4.58 0.52 17. 3.44 0.87 18. 4.26 0.37 19. 2.50 X6.20 X 11.18 X 1.10 X 2.77 Table 2 PROTEIN AND FAT CONTENT OF INFESTED AND NON-INFESTED PERNA VIRIDIS Infested Non infested Protein % 56.00 66.50 56.00 64.75 62.00 56.00 64.41 Fat 7.00 8.00 5.00 9.00 5.00 9.00 5.00 8.66 viridis was found to be a new host for Pinnotheres casta. December 3, 1999 R.S. LAL MOHAN Conservation of Nature Trust, 43-C, Water Tank Rd., Nagercoil 629 001, GEORGE VARGHESE Central Institute of Fishe/y Technology, Kozhikode 673 005, Kerala, India. ERNESTO CAMPOS University Auto di Baja California Apart ado Postal 2300, Ensenada B.C. 22800, Mexico JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 143 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES References Antony, A. & V.J. Kuttyamma (1971): A new species of the pea-crab Pinnotheres Latreille (Crustacea: Brachyura: Pinnotheridae) from the clam, Meretrix casta Chemitz. Bull. Dept. Mar. Biol & Oceano. (5): 59-68. Chhapgar, B.F. (1955): On two new species and a new variety of crabs (Decapoda : Brachyura) from Bombay state. Rec. Ind. Mus. 53: 251-260. Christiansen, A.M. & J.J. McDermitt (1958): Life history and biology of the oyster crab Pinnotheres ostreum Say. Biol. Bull. 114: 146-179. Durve, V.S. (1960): A Study on Oysters. Ph.D. thesis, University of Bombay. Mansueti, R. (1955): The oyster’s messmate. Nature Mag. 48(3): 125-127. Silas, E.G. & K. Alagarswami (1967): On an instance of paras itization by the pea crab ( Pinnotheres sp.) on the backwater clam Meretrix casta (Chemnitz) from India, with a review of the work on the systematics, ecology, biology and ethology of pea crab of the genus Pinnotheres Latreille, Symp. Crustacea. Part III: 1161-1227. Strauber, L.A. (1942): The oyster crab Pinnotheres ostreum , parasitic on the oyster. Anat. Rec. 84: 45-46. Thompson, J.V. (1835): Memoirs on the metamorphosis and natural history of the Pinnotheres or pea crabs. Entomol. Mag. 3: 85-90. Tesch, J.J. (1918): The Decapoda Brachyura of the Siboga Expedition 1 1 . Goneplacidae and Pinnotheridae. Siboga Exped. Rep. 39cl. 295. 19 pis. Yonge, C.M. (1960): Oysters. Collin’s, St. James Place, London, pp. 118. 30. PRELIMINARY STUDIES ON SPIDER DIVERSITY AND THEIR WEBS IN SELECTED SACRED GROVES IN KERALA Nature worship has been an ancient Indian tradition and all forms of life have been considered as sacred in Hindu scriptures. Certain landscapes or plants were also considered sacred. These sacred groves are pockets of climax vegetation preserved by religious sentiments. Such pockets are commonly referred to as “Kavu” in Malayalam, “Devarais” in Marathi, “Pavithravanam” or “Sindhra vanam” in Kannada and “Kadu” in Tamil (Induchoodan 1988). It is well known that the sacred trees such as banyan, peepal and other species of Ficus support a variety of life forms. Spiders may be sedentary, social and could be cannibalistic. They are skilful hunters (Lococids), jumpers (Attids), excellent architects and specialized swimmers. All spiders are carnivorous. They are distributed extensively in the field, thick forest floors as well as in the human habitations and deserted buildings, under stones and logs and the tree trunks. Some of the spiders like Araneus, Argiope, Leucauge and G aster acantha are orb web weavers. Members of Family Pholcidae make irregular webs, while those of Family Eresidae construct compact nests with many entrance holes. These nests are most commonly found in India on Acacia trees and shrubs. Some of the spiders prepare no webs or snares to catch their prey. Families Lycosidae, Gnaphosidae, Clubionidae, Sparassidae, Salticidae, Oxyopidae and Thomisidae are hunting or running spiders. The role of spiders in the biogenesis of different agro-ecosystems has been studied since 1943 (Kagan 1943, Whitcomb et al. 1963, Whitcomb and Bell 1964, Neyffler and Benz 1979, 1980, Doane and Dondale 1979, Doane et al. 1982). They have an important role in controlling pests. Crab spiders are of tremendous economic relevance in tropical countries as they capture and feed on cockroaches and domestic insect pests. Heteropoda Venator ia, the giant crab spider could be effectively used to control cockroaches and other insect pests because of its preference for these creatures as prey. Iringole Sacred Grove: The Iringole sacred grove is situated in Perumbavoor, Ernakulam district, Kerala. It is spread around about 10 ha and lies between 10° 10' N and 76° 30' E. The grove is more or less at sea level. The 144 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES forest type is Southern Tropical West Coast Evergreen (Champion and Seth 1968). It has a luxuriant growth of trees, shrubs and herbs. The dominant tree species are Hopea parviflora , Hopea ponga, Valeria indica, Holigarna arnottiana, Polyalthia fragrans , Mesua nagassarium , Aporusa lindleyana, Casearia esculenta, Cinnamomum malabathrum, Mallotus philippensis, Myristica malabarica. Mookuthala Sacred Grove: Mookuthala sacred grove ( c . 3 ha) is situated in the Nannamukku Village of Malapuram district, Kerala and lies between 10° 49-11° 40' N and 75° 50'-76° 35' E. The Mookuthala forest sacred grove is a lowland, Southern Tropical West Coast Evergreen type (Champion and Seth 1968). The dominant tree species in this locality is Poeciloneuron indicum (Butham Kolli). Aglaia elaegnoidea, Caryota urens and Ervatamia heyneana are also abundant. Sangukulangara Sacred Grove: Sangukulangara sacred grove (c. 3 ha) is situated in Srinarayanapuram near Kodungallur of Thrissur district, Kerala between 10° 43' N and 76° 53' E and can be classified as Southern Tropical West Coast Evergreen (Champion and Seth 1968). The vegetation mainly consists of Hopea ponga , Memecylon umbellatum, Artocarpns hirsutus, Syzygium c ary ophy llatum, Garcinia gummi-gutta , and Xanthophyllum flavescens. The study was conducted in three selected sacred groves in Kerala from December 1991 to March 1 998 following quadrate method (Ludwig and Reynolds 1988). Plots of 10 m x 10 m were laid randomly in different locations in the grove. Each grove was surveyed in the morning (0730- 0930 hrs), afternoon (1200-1400 hrs) and evening (1600-1800 hrs). The spiders were identified along with the type of web, number of radials, number of rings, web height from ground level and the plant species used for anchoring the web (Table 1). The spiders collected were preserved and later identified with the help of a standard key (Pocock 1900; Subramanyam 1968a, b; Tikader 1976, 1980, 1982; Tikader and Biswas 1981; Vijayalakshmi and Ahimaz 1993) and an ordinary hand lens. Quantitative information like richness, diversity and evenness of distribution were found using SPDIVERS.BAS in STATECOL (Ludwig and Reynolds 1988). Fourteen species of spiders were recorded (Table 2), all of which are widely distributed in India. Mookuthala sacred grove had the highest number of spider species (8) followed by Sangukulangara (7) and Iringole (6). Iringole Sacred Groves: A total of 152 spiders were recorded during the study period in Iringole. Argiope anasuja (35.52%) was the commonest in the area followed by Araneus nympha (22.36%), Hippasa agelenoides (17.10%), Gasteracantha geminata (15.78%), Cyrtophora moluccensis (8.55%) and Tegenaria sp. (0.65%). Mookuthala Sacred Grove: A total of 275 spiders were recorded during the study period in Mookuthala. Argiope anasuja (36.00%) was found to dominate in the area followed by Araneus nympha (20.00%), Hippasa agelenoides (11.27%), Tegenaria sp. (10.54%), Gasteracantha geminata (8.72%), Crossopriza lyoni (8.72%), Lycosa quadrifer (4.36%) and Poecilotheria rufilata (0.36%). Sangukulangara Sacred Grove: Out of the 472 spiders recorded in Sangukulangara, the highest percentage recorded was of Stegodyphus sarasinorum (44.06%) followed by Argiope anasuja (21.9%), Hers ilia savignyi (13.13%), Table 1 DETAILS OF SAMPLING EFFORT Name of grove No. of days spent No. of plots Total No. of spiders Iringole 9 270 152 Mookuthala 8 240 275 Sangukulangara 8 240 472 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 145 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Table 2 SPIDER SPECIES RECORDED IN THE THREE SACRED GROVES Family and Species name SGI SG2 SG3 I. Araneidae Argiope anasuja Thorell 54 99 102 Gasteracantha geminata (Fabricius) 24 24 47 Nephila maculata (Fabricius) - - 24 Cyrtophora moluccensis (Doleschal) 13 Araneus nympha Simon 34 55 - 11. Hersilidae Hersilia savignyi Lucas _ _ 62 111. Oxyopidae Oxyopes rufisternis Pocock _ 11 IV. Lycosidac Lycosa quadrifer Gravely 12 _ Hippasa agelenoides (Simon) 26 31 - V. Pholcidae Crossopriza lyoni Blackwall 24 VI. Psechridae Fecenia travancoria Pocock . _ 18 VII. Eresidae Stegodyphus sarasinorum Karsch _ 208 VIII. Theraphosidae Poecilotheria rufilata Pocock 1 IX. Agelenidae Tegenaria sp. 1 29 _ Total 152 275 472 SGI = lringole, SG2 = Mookuthala, SG3 Sangukulangara, - = absent Table 3 RICHNESS INDICES OF SPIDERS IN THREE DIFFERENT SACRED GROVES Indices SGI SG2 SG3 No 6.00 8.00 7.00 R1 0.99 1.24 1.97 R2 0.49 0.48 0.32 SGI = lringole, SG2 = Mookuthala, SG3 Sangukulangara, N() = No. of species, R1 = Margalef index, R2 = Menhinck index G aster acantha geminata (9.9%), Nephila maculata (5 .08%), Fecenia travancoria (3.81 %), and Oxyopes rufisternis (2.33%). Richness Indices: The richness indices of the spider community in three different sacred groves are presented Table 3. The R1 value is high in Sangukulangara sacred grove (R1 = 1 .97) followed by the Mookuthala sacred grove (R1 = 1 .24), indicating the richness of the area. Evenness Indices: To quantify the evenness component of the diversity, five indices were used. El, E2 and E3 are considered here for interpretation because these values are sensitive to the number of species in the sample. The evenness was observed to be more in lringole and less in Mookuthala sacred grove (Table 4). The E4 and E5 values are unaffected by the richness (Ludwig and Reynolds 1988). Table 4 EVENNESS INDICES OF SPIDERS IN THREE DIFFERENT SACRED GROVES Indices SGI SG2 SG3 El 0.85 0.84 • 0.79 E2 0.77 0.72 0.67 E3 0.73 0.68 0.62 E4 0.92 0.83 0.78 E5 0.90 0.79 0.72 SGI = lringole, SG2 = Mookuthala, SG3 = Sangukulangara, E 1 -E5 = Evenness indices proposed by various authors (Ludwig and Reynolds 1988) Diversity Indices: Simpson’s index (1) are highest in Sangukulangara, followed by lringole and Mookuthala. Shannon Wiener index H’ is the most widely used index in community ecology. The H’ value increases when all the species are represented by same numbers of individuals or in other way with even distribution of abundance’s. N 1 value is high for Mookuthala (5.78) and shows an even distribution of abundance when compared with lringole and Sangukulangara (Table 5). Table 5 DIVERSITY INDICES OF SPIDERS IN THREE DIFFERENT SACRED GROVES Indices SGI SG2 SG3 X 0.23 0.20 0.27 H’ 1.53 1.75 1.55 N1 4.66 5.78 4.72 N2 4.29 4.81 3.68 SGI = lringole, SG2 = Mookuthala, SG3 Sangukulangara, N1 and N2 = Hill’s diversity numbers 146 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Abundance: All the spider species studied show uniform abundance in all the sacred groves (Table 6). Stegodyphus sarasinorum, found in social webs, was found only in the Sangukulangara sacred grove, hence the high abundance factor. The present study on spiders indicates highest number of species in Mookuthala followed by Sangukulangara. lringole, the largest of the sacred groves studied had only six species. The study does not indicate much variation in the number of species observed. However, it does indicate a uniform abundance in all the groves. The diversity indices do not show much difference between sacred groves. Among the recorded species, Argiope anasuja and Gasteracantha geminata were common in all the areas. Five species namely Nephiia maculata, Oxyopes rufisternis , Hersilia savignyi, Fecenia travancoria and Stegodyphus sarasinorum were confined only to Sangukulangara sacred grove. Three species namely Lycosa quadrifer, Poecilotheria rufilata , Crossopriza lyoni were recorded only from Mookuthala sacred grove and Cyrtophora moluccensis was observed only in lringole. Occurrence of various species in sacred groves seems to be correlated with the vegetation type and biotic interference. Nephiia maculata , the spider with large sized web was recorded only from the least disturbed, but thick grove in Sangukulangara. Lycosa quadrifer and Poecilotheria rufilata are ground dwelling spiders. Hippasa agelenoides and Tegenaria sp. are seen mostly on grasses. These four species were found mostly in Mookuthala followed by lringole, the groves having grassy ground floor. The tree dwellers are mostly seen in Sangukulangara and Mookuthala where most trees are undisturbed. Further, the presence of bonnet macaque, which move around a lot in lringole could have also been one of the reasons for the absence of large web making species such as Nephiia maculata . Table 6 ABUNDANCE OF SPIDER SPECIES IN THREE SACRED GROVES Abundance (m2) SI. No. Species name SGI SG2 SG3 1 Argiope anasuja .01 .01 .01 2 Gasteracantha geminata .01 .01 .01 3 Nephiia maculata - - .01 4 Cyrtophora moluccensis .01 - - 5 Araneus nympha .01 .01 - 6 Hersilia savignyi - - .01 7 Oxyopes rufisternis - - .01 8 Lycosa quadrifer - .01 - 9 Hippasa agelenoides .01 .01 - 10 Crossopriza lyoni - .01 - 11 Fecenia travancoria - - .01 12 Stegodyphus sarasinorum - - 12 13 Poecilotheria rufilata - .01 - 14 Tegenaria .01 .01 - Acknowledgements The first author acknowledges the Division of Wildlife Biology, A.V.C. College, Mayiladuthurai and Division of Wildlife Biology, Kerala Forest Research Institute, Peechi, Kerala, for providing various facilities to carry out this work. Thanks are also due to Dr. P. S. Sabastian, Department of Zoology, Sacred Heart’s College, Kochi, for his help in the identification of the spiders. The suggestions made by Dr. G. Ramaswamy, Reader, Division of Wildlife Biology, A.V.C. College, for the improvement of this paper is also acknowledged. December 21, 1999 C. SIVAPERUMAN PS. EASA Division of Wildlife Biology, Kerala Forest Research Institute, Peechi 680 653, Kerala, India. S. SWETHARANYAM Division of Wildlife Biology, A.V.C. College (Autonomous), Mannampandal 609 305, Nagai District, Tamil Nadu, India. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 147 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES References Champion, H.G. & S.K. Seth (1968): A revised survey of forest types of India. Nasik; Government of India Press, p. 404. Doane, D.A., W.L. Sterling & N.V. Horner (1982): Spiders in eastern Texas Cotton fields. J. Arachnol. 10: 251-260. Donde, J.F. & C.D. Dondale ( 1 979): Seasonal captures of spiders in a wheat field and its grassy borders in central Saskatchewan. Can. Ent. 111(4): 439-446. Induchoodan, N.C. (1988): Ecological studies of a sacred grove (Iringole). M.Sc. Thesis. Kerala Agricultural University. Trichur. Kagan, M. (1943): The Araneida found on cotton in Central Texas. Ann. Entomol. Soc. America. 36: 257- 258. Ludwig, J.A. & J.F. Reynolds (1988): Statistical Ecology. A premier on methods and computing. Wiley- Interscience Publication, p. 337. Neyffler, M. & G. Benz (1979): Studies on the ecological importance of spider populations for the vegetation of cereal and rape fields. Z. Ang. Ent. 87: 348-376. Neyffler, M. & G. Benz (1980): The role of spiders as insect predators in cereal fields near Zurich (Switzerland). Proc. VIII Intern. Cong. Arach. Vienna: 127-131. Pocock, R.I. (1900): Fauna of British India, Arachnida. London. Pp. 153-205. Subramanyam, T.V. (1968a): An Introduction to the study of Indian spiders (part I). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 65(2): 453-462. Subramanyam, T.V. (1968b): An Introduction to the study of Indian spiders (part II). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 65(3): 726-143. Tikader, B. K. (1976): Key to Indian spiders. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 73: 356-370. Tikader, B.K. (1980): Fauna of India. Spiders, Vol. I, Araneae (Thomisidae & Lycosidae). Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta. 1-245 and 259-445. Tikader, B.K. (1982): Fauna of India. Spiders Vol. II Araneae (Araneidae and Gnaphosidae). Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta. 1-291 and 305-527. Tikader, B.K. & B. Biswas (1981): Spider fauna of Calcutta and its vicinity part I. Rec. zoo/. Surv. India. Paper No. 30: 1-49. Vijayalakshmi. K. & P. Ahimaz (1993): Spiders an Introduction. Cre: A. Madras, p. 112. Whitcomb, W.H. & K. Bell (1964): Predaceous insects, spiders and mites of Arkansas cotton field. Arkansas Agri. Exp. Stn. Bull. 690: 84. Whitcomb, W.H., H. Exline & R.C. Hunter (1963): Spiders of the Arkansas cotton field. Ann. Entomol. Soc. America. 56: 653-660. 31. NOTES ON CLEmTIS BOURDILLONII V\jm (FAMILY RANUNCULACEAE) ( With one plate) Clematis bourdillonii was described in 1914 by S.T. Dunn, on the basis of two collections 554 & 860 of T.F. Bourdillon from Merchiston Estate, Travancore (presently in Kerala). He chose the name as a tribute to the memory of T.F. Bourdillon, who botanised Travancore during 1872-1908. The species is distinguished by its larger flowers and prolonged anther connective from C. gouriana Roxb. and by the entire leaf margin, without undulations, and glabrous plants (except flowers) from C. hedysarifolia DC. This species is endemic to the southern Western Ghats, and is known only by the type collections from Merchiston Estate. In flora of thiruvananthapuram, Mohanan and Henry ( 1 994) state that “This rare species could not be collected and is not represented in MH”. They examined both the specimens (syntypes) present at University College herbarium, Thiruvananthapuram, and Bourdillon 860 was designated as the lectotype. Recently, I located one of the type specimens of C. bourdillonii Dunn, 554 of T.F. Bourdillon and a photo of Bourdillon 860 in the Madras Herbarium, Coimbatore. The publication on the rediscovery of Clematis bourdillonii Dunn from Kodaikanal Hills by Ramachandran (1998) prompted me to examine the collection from Mathikettan shola, 9.xii.l994, V.S. Ramachandran 10283 Madras Herbarium (MH). The specimens from Mathikettan shola (Ramachandran 10283, MH), characterised by ternate leaves with long, 148 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Murthy, G.V.S.: Clematis bourdillonii Plate 1 sc.wms tfvii Si-sin** S* ^ i^ssss* Fig. 1: Clematis bourdillonii , Type 554 150 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES A COMPARISON OF CLEM A TIS BOURDILLONII WITH SOME ALLIED SPECIES C. bourdillonii C. gouriana C. hedysarifolia C. munroana Habit Climber Climber Climber Climber Stem Glabrous purplish Hairy brown Hairy brown Glabrous brown Leaves Pinnate leaflets oblong-elliptic entire, 3 -nerves raised both sides base acute 1-2-ternate-pinnate ieaflets entire/dentate, base cordate Ternate/pinnate dentate 5 -nerved, veins raised lower base cordate Temate, entire 5-nerves raised below, veins obscure, base acute Petiole 4-5 cm 2-6 cm 7-8 cm twisting 12-14 cm Petiole 1-2 cm 1-2 cm 1-2 cm 4-5 cm cirrose Inflorescence Cymosely flowered panicle (13 fls.), pedicel 1.6 cm Panicle, fls. crowded pedicel 1.5 cm Lower paniculate higher 3-flowered pedicel 1 cm 1-5 flowered, pedicels 10 cm long Flowers Greenish-white buds elliptic ' Greenish-white buds obovate Greenish-yellow buds globose /ovate Maroon buds ovate Sepals Oblong, pubescent outside, margins tomentose Obovate, white pubescent in and out Ovate, densely hairy outside Oblong, velvety tomentose outside Stamen Connective produced; filaments flat, anthers lateral Connective not produced: filament linear, anthers terminal connective produced; filaments flat, anthers lateral connective produced; filaments linear, anthers lateral cirriform petiolules and 1 -3 maroon flowers with long pedicels, belong to Clematis munroana Wight, a well marked species, which has been misidentified by Ramachandran and described as a different species. A comparison of these specimens with the Bourdillon specimen 554 in MH confirmed that they are not C. bourdillonii. Similarly, I am sceptical about the identity of the collection Sobha 6223 (KUBOT) and the report of chromosome number n = 24 for C. bourdillonii by Sobha and Ramachandran (1980), since the specimens are not traceable (pers. comm.). The description of Clematis bourdillonii Dunn in Indian floras is not elaborate (Gamble 1915, Rau 1993, Mohanan and Henry 1994). Further, Rau (1993) described the plants as glabrous or sparsely hairy, leaflets entire or sometimes coarsely toothed (perhaps from key to species from Gamble 1 .c.), whereas the protologue says that the plants are glabrous (except flowers) and leaflets 6-9 cm, entire (Dunn 1914). In view of the above findings, a detailed description of C. bourdillonii Dunn with a figure and comparative account with allied species is provided. Clematis bourdillonii Dunn, Bull. Misc. Inform.: 181, 1914; in Gamble, FI. Pres. Madras 1 : 3. 1915; Rau in FI. India 1: 59. 1993; Mohanan & Henry, FI. Thiruvananthapuram: 40. 1994. (Plate 1, Fig. 1). Handsome climber, branches furrowed, glabrous (except flowers), glossy, dark purplish. Leaves opposite, pinnate (1-2 ternate by Dunn), leaflets 5, oblong or elliptical, 6-9 x 1.6-2. 5 cm, tip and base acute, entire and plain, nerves 3-5, raised on both sides, reticulate in full length; petiole 4. 5-5. 5 cm, stipular marks absent; petiolules 1-2 cm. inflorescence axillary or terminal, cymosely flowered panicle (13- flowered); peduncle 6-7 cm, glabrous. Flower buds 7-10 mm long, oblong-elliptic; flowers c. 2 cm across; pedicels 1.5- 1.7 cm. Sepals 4, greenish, oblong, 10-12 x 2-3 mm, ultimately reflexed, glabrous inside, villous outside, margins tomentose. Stamens c. 20, 6 mm long, equal to styles or slightly longer; filaments glabrous, flat, JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 151 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 2-3x1 mm, connective produced beyond anther lobes, 1-1.5 mm long; anthers 2-3 mm, Carpels 7-10, hairy, styles hairy, Achenes not seen. FI.: April-May. Ecology: Medium elevations, 753.5 m., secondary forests. Distribution: india: Endemic to southern Western Ghats in Kerala. Specimens examined: Travancore, Merchiston Estate, 7.iv.l895, T.F. Bourdillon 554 (MH) (Bourdillon identified as C. hedysarifolia DC., Dunn (1914) annotated as C. meyeriana Walp. Cult. ?); T.F. Bourdillon 860 (MH, photo) (Bourdillon identified as C. hedysarifolia DC., Dunn (1914) annotated as C. bourdillonii)', Merchiston Estate, 9.iv. 1 895, T.F. Bourdillon 554 Dunn, S.T.(1914): Clematis bourdillonii Dunn (Ranunculaceae). Bull. Misc. Inform., Kew,pp. 181. Gamble, J.S. (1915): Ranunculaceae. FI. Pres. Madras N 61. 1:3. Mohanan, M. & A.N. Henry (1994): Flora of Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala. Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta. (K) (identified as C. gouriana Roxb., Dunn annotated as C. bourdillonii Kew Bull. 181, 1914). Acknowledgements I thank Dr. P. Daniel, Deputy Director, Botanical Survey of India, Coimbatore for facilities and Dr. M. Sanjappa, CNH, Koikata for sending information from Kew, England. I also thank DD, BSI for loaning herbarium specimens. June 5, 2000 G.V.S. MURTHY Botanical Survey of India, Southern Circle, Coimbatore 641 003, Tamil Nadu, India NCES Ramachandran, V.S. ( 1 988): Rediscovery of two endemic taxa from southern India with notes on their distribution. Rheedea 8: 83-86. Rau, M.A. (1993): Ranunculaceae. In: Flora of India, 1: 59. Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta. Sobha, V. & K. Ramachandran (1980): Chromosome numbers, Clematis bourdillonii. Taxon 29: 165. 32. PRESENCE OF COMMIPHORA GILEADENSE , FAMILY BURSERACEAE, IN RAJASTHAN ( With one text-figure) On October 15, 1999, while I was on a biodiversity survey in and around the Sitamata Wildlife Sanctuary, at the border of Udaipur and Chittorgarh districts in southern Rajasthan, I noticed many plants of Commiphora gileadense near Kedaria Village (Udaipur district) growing naturally. This area falls under the jurisdiction of Aravalli Afforestation Project Range Bhinder of Udaipur (North) Forest Division. Local farmers told me that this species was present in the forest area and beeds (patches of private forests) of surrounding villages also. C. gileadense is a bushy plant, having trifoliate leaves on slender petioles. Lateral leaflets are of small size, while terminal leaflets are generally large in most of the observed plants. The leaves of C. wightii , which is a rather common species in Rajasthan, do not have slender petioles (Fig. 1). According to Brandis (1972) and Talbot (1976), C. gileadense is an indigenous species confined to the east side of the Nilgiris and dry parts of Sri Lanka. It is also cultivated as a hedge plant all over South India. It is reported from Poona and Khandesh area of Maharashtra (Almeida 1996). This species is not included in the various Floras of Rajasthan (Bhandari 1990, Sharma and Tiagi 1979, Shetty and Pandey 1983, Shetty and 152 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES C. gileadense Singh 1987, 1991, 1993 and Singh 1983), hence this sighting is of special interest. Acknowledgements I thank R.G. Soni, Addl. PCCF and CCF (WL), Rajasthan, for the opportunity to study the biodiversity of protected areas of southern Rajasthan and Magni Ram Kumawat, RFO, Bhinder Range and his staff for help in the field. May 23, 2000 SATISH KUMAR SHARMA Range Forest Officer, Phulwari Wildlife Sanctuary, Kotra 307 025, District Udaipur, Rajasthan, India. References Almeida, M.R. (1996): Flora of Maharashtra. Vol. 1 Blatter Herbarium, St. Xavier’s College, Mumbai, pp. 1- 294. andis, D. (1972): The Forest Flora of northwest and Central India (Repr.). Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehra Dun. pp. 1-608. Bhandari, M.M. (1990): Flora of the Indian Desert. MPS Pepros, Jodhpur, pp. 1-435. Sharma. S. & B. Tiagi (1979): Flora of northeast Rajasthan. Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi & Ludhiana, pp. 1- 540. Shetty, B.V & R.P. Pandey (1983): Flora ofTonk District. Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta, pp. 1-253. Shetty, B.V & V. Singh (1987): Flora of Rajasthan Vol. 1. Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta, pp. 1-452. Shetty, B.V.& V. Singh(1991): Flora of Rajasthan Vol. II. Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta, pp. 453-860. Shetty, B.V. & V. Singh (1993): Flora of Rajasthan Vol. III. Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta, pp. 86 1 - 1246. Singh, V. (1983): Flora of Banswara, Rajasthan. Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta, pp. 1-312 Talbot, W.A. (1976): Forest Flora of the Bombay Presidency and Sind. Vol. 1 (Repr.). Today and Tomorrow’s Printers and Publishers, New Delhi 5. pp. 1-508. 33. VENTILAGO BOMBA1ENS1S DALZ., RHAMNACEAE — A NEW DISTRIBUTIONAL RECORD FOR TAMIL NADU ( With one text figure) In the course of floristic exploration of Tirunelveli hills of Southern Western Ghats, the authors collected an interesting specimen of the genus Ventilago Gaertn. (Rhamnaceae). Critical analysis and perusal of literature confirmed it as Ventilago bombaiensis Dalz. (Fig. 1.). It is rare (Ramachandran and Nair 1988; Keshavamurthy and Yoganarasimhan 1990; Vajravelu 1990) and endemic (Ahmedullah and Nayar 1986; Sasidharan and Sivarajan 1996; Nayar 1996) and has so far been recorded in the Western Ghats of Karnataka, Kerala and Maharashtra states. The occurrence of this species in Tirunelveli hills, Tamil Nadu with the evidence from flora of Tamil nadu, vol. 1 (Nair and Henry 1983) and the present communication, therefore, forms a new distributional record for Tamil Nadu. A short description of this species is given with an JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 153 1 cm MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Fig. 1: Ventilago bombaiensis Dalz., A. Twig, B. Inflorescence, C. Flower, D. Bract, E. Sepal (outer & inner), F. Petal (inner & outer), G. Stamen, H. L.S. of Pistil, I. T.S. of ovary 154 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES illustration, to facilitate field identity. The voucher specimens have been deposited in the St. Xavier’s College Herbarium (XCH). Ventilago bombaiensis Dalz. in Hook, Kew Joum. Bot. Gard. Misc. 3:36. 1851; Cooke, FI. Pres. Bombay 1:239. 1902(1:218. 1958 rep. ed); M. Lawson in Hook, f., FI. Brit. India 1:631. (rep. ed); Gamble, FI. Pres. Madras 1:218. 1997 (rep. ed); Ramachandran and V.J. Nair, FI. Cannanore 99. 1988; Ahmedullah & Nayar, Endem. PI. Indian Region 1:181. 1986; Smythea bombaiensis (Dalz.) Baner. & Muker. Indian For. 96:206. 1970; Ziziphus bombaiensis (Dalz.) Bedd., Ic. t. 114, 1871. Flowering: April - July. Specimens examined: India, Tamil Nadu, Tirunelveli district, Kudamadi, 27. iv. 1998, Manickam, 15592 (XCH); Kallimalai, 2.vii..l999, Manickam, 19945 (XCH). Field Notes: It occurs rarely along exposed, moist deciduous forest at 700 m (Kudamadi) and 850 m (Kallimalai) altitudes. Easily recognized in the field by the crenate-dentate margin of the leaves, and flowers in axillary fascicles. Acknowledgements We are grateful to UGC for financial assistance and the Field Director, Project Tiger, KMTR for allowing us to undertake the field studies. Our sincere thanks to Dr. R. Gopalan and Dr. V. Chelladurai for their commendable suggestions and critical evaluation of the manuscript. November 15, 1999 V.S. MANICKAM C. MURUGAN V. SUNDARESAN G. JEYA JOTHI Centre for Biodiversity and Biotechnology, Department of Botany, St. Xavier’s College, Palayamkottai 627 002, Tamil Nadu, India. Reference Nayar, M.P. (1996): Hot spots of Endemic Plants of India, Nepal and Bhutan. 212. 34. ON THE OCCURRENCE OF POGOSTEMON TRAVANCORICUS , FAMILY LABIATAE AND ARGYREIA CHOISYANA , FAMILY CONVOLVULACEAE IN TAMIL NADU During a botanical exploration in the Tirunelveli hills, Tamil Nadu, we came across two plant species that had not been collected by earlier workers. They are not included in the flora of Tamil nadu, India. Ser. I: Analysis. Pogostemon travancoricus Bedd. Hooker, FI. Brit. India 3: 637. 1885, Gamble, FI. Pres. Madras 1135. 1921. (Labiatae). FI. & Fr.: April-June. Alt.: 1,400 m. Specimen examined: Agastyamalai, Tirunelveli district, Tamil Nadu. Manickam, 19075 (XCH). Note: This species may be endemic to the southern Western Ghats. Though it is reported from Western Ghats, Henry et al. (1987) do not include it in the flora of Tamil nadu, India. Ser. I: Analysis. Therefore, it is an addition to the flora of Tamil Nadu. Argyreia choisyana Wt. Hooker, FI. Brit. India 4: 190. 1885; Gamble, FI. Pres, Madras 908. 1921 (Convolvulaceae). FI. & Fr.: December-February. Alt.: 400-600 m. Specimen examined: Kalakad- Sengaltheri, Tirunelveli district, Tamil Nadu, Manickam 11732 (XCH). Note: Gamble reported its occurrence JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 155 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES based on Wight’s collection from Kondaparthi and Beddome’s collection from Cuddapah. The present collection is the first report from the State. Acknowledgements We sincerely thank the UGC for financial assistance, the Chief Wildlife Warden and Field Director for permission to do the field work, Dr. R. Gopalan, Systematic Botanist, Botanical Survey of India, Southern Circle, Coimbatore and Dr. V. Chelladurai, Research Officer, Siddha Medical College for identification and critical comments on this paper. April 22, 2000 V.S. MANICKAM V. SUNDARESAN C. MURUGAN G.J. JOTHI Centre for Biodiversity and Biotechnology, Department of Botany, St. Xavier’s College Palayamkottai 627 002, Tamil Nadu, India. Reference Henry, A.N., G.R. Kumari & V. Chithra (1987): Flora of Tamil Nadu, India. I: Analysis. Vol. 2. BSI, Coimbatore. 35. OCCURRENCE OF HABENARIA LONG ICORNICU LATA GRAH. FAMILY ORCHIDACEAE IN MOUNT ABU WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, RAJASTHAN On September 15, 1999, I was leading a group of trainees of nature guide service in the Mount Abu Wildlife Sanctuary, Rajasthan. While moving on the Kodra Trail, I observed a single plant of Habenaria longicorniculata under bushes of Lantana camara. The plant was growing in a crevice of a smal 1 rock. It was nearly 80 cm long, having 6 subradical alternate, elliptic leaves. Its long scape bore three developing fruits at the apex. Dried petals were still present on the tips of the developing fruit. Each fruit had a long spur ( c . 10-12 cm) still intact. The proximal part of the spur was narrow and semi-dried, while the distal part was club-shaped and green. According to Mehta (1979), two species of genus Habenaria, namely H. digitata and H. marginata are found in the Mount Abu area. H. longicorniculata has not been reported earlier from any part of Rajasthan (Shetty and Singh 1987, 1991, 1993). This is the first report of its occurrence in Mount Abu as well as from Rajasthan State, hence it is worth recording. I thank R.G. Soni, Adi. PCCF and CWLW, U.M. Sahai, CF, M. K. Vijaivergia, Dy. CWLW, Fateh Singh Rathor, Range Forest Officer (WL) for facilities to conduct the biodiversity studies in Mount Abu Wildlife Sanctuary. June 5, 2000 SATISH KUMAR SHARMA Range Forest Officer, Phulwari Wildlife Sanctuary \ Kotra 307 025, District Udaipur, Rajasthan, India. References Mehta, M.R. (1979): Flora of Mount Abu. Ph.D. Thesis. Shetty, B.V.& V. Singh(1991): Flora of Rajasthan Vol. II. University of Jodhpur, Jodhpur, Rajasthan. Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta. Pp. 453-860. Shetty, B.V. &V. Singh (1987): Flora of Rajasthan Vol I. Shetty, B.V. & V. Singh (1993): Flora of Rajasthan Vol. Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta. Pp. 1-452. III. Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta. Pp. 861-1246. 156 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 36. DOUM PALM AT BHANGARH, RAJASTHAN? After reading the short note titled “Doum Palms at Bhamgarh in interior Rajasthan” (. JBNHS , 1994, 91(3): 476) (author has given the name of place Bhamgarh, actually its pronunciation is Bhangarh in the area), I contacted the Field Director, Tiger Project, Sariska and Range Forest Officer, Tehala to confirm the presence of doum palms (Hyphaene dichotoma) at Bhangarh, a locality in their jurisdiction. With the assistance provided by the local authorities, I scrutinized the whole Bhangarh stream thoroughly and reached the conclusion that Pandanus fascicular is (Family Pandanaceae) was misidentified as doum palm. Pandanus fascicularis is locally called ‘ Kevda Indeed, it is an old sacred grove of Kevda , having plants of different heights and ages. A large number of old plants have taken the shape of small trees and have dichotomous branching also. However, branching is not truly dichotomous in many plants. A good number of plants are more like shrubs. Plants attain erect tree posture and also develop profuse aerial stilt roots P. fascicularis, though a garden plant, often runs wild along streams in moist and marshy habitats in many places in Rajasthan like Bhangarh (Alwar), Kevda-Ki-Nal, Bari Talab, Thur (Udaipur), etc. The author is grateful to Mr. Tejveer Singh, Field Director, Project Tiger, Sariska; Mr. Suresh Sharma and Mr. Satish Sharma of Tehala Range for assistance. November 2, 1999 SATISH KUMAR SHARMA Range Forest Officer, Phulwari Wildlife Sanctuary, Kotra 307 025, District Udaipur, Rajasthan, India. 37. TYPHON1UM FLAGELLIFORME (ROXB. EX LUDD.) BLUME, FAMILY ARACEAE: AN ADDITION TO THE FLORA OF ORISSA The genus Typhonium Schott., Family Araceae, has 30 species occurring in Southeast Asia, Indo-Malaysia and Northeastern Australia (Mabberley 1997). In India, the genus is represented by 16 species (Santapau and Henry 1973), which are mostly distributed in the states of West Bengal, Orissa, Bihar, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Maharashtra, Himachal Pradesh and the western Peninsula. During field collection of Typhonium trilobatum, to study its medicinal properties, we came across another species of Typhonium , which closely resembles trilobatum , but differs from it in a number of morphological characters. On critical examination, its identity was ascertained as Typhonium flagelliforme. Interestingly, this species has not been reported so far from Orissa (Saxena and Brahmam 1995) and this is a new distributional record for the state. Typhonium trilobatum and T. flagelliforme can be distinguished from each other by the following consistent morphological characters: 1 . Limb of spathe narrowly lanceolate, acuminate, not expanded. Neuters above the females short and stout. Appendage longer than limb of spathe T. flagelliforme — Limb of spathe open, broadly ovate. Neuters above the females long, filiform, curved. Appendage not longer than limb of spathe .... T. trilobatum Correct nomenclature, botanical description, notes on habitat, phenology, and distribution of the newly recorded species are given below. Typhonium flagelliforme (Roxb. ex Lodd.) Blume, Rumphia 1: 134. 1835; Gamble, FI. Presid. Madras 3: 1100. 1935. Arum flagelliforme Roxb. [Hort. Beng. 65. 1814, nom. Nud.] ex Lodd. Bot. Cab. 396. 1819. Typhonium cuspidatum (Blume) Decne Herb. Timor in Ann. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 157 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Hist. Nat. 3: 39. 1834; Hook, f., FI. Brit. India 6: 511. 1893; Prain, Bengal PI. 2: 1107. 1903. (Araceae). Tuberous, erect, stemless herbs; tuber up to 2 cm diameter, sub-globose. Leaves radical, up to 8.0-15.0 x 2. 0-6.0 cm, of variable width, ovate-oblong or lanceolate, acute or acuminate, cordate at base, hastate ly 3-lobed or tripartite, rarely entire, long petioled, reticulately veined, green above, glaucous beneath. Petiole 10.0-15.0 cm long, base sheathing. Spathe up to 20 cm long (including the tail), lurid red, papillose within; limb of spathe with short lanceolate base produced into a very long, slender tail. Peduncle slender, up to 15 cm long. Spadix shortly stipitate, appendage produced into a long filiform tail, a little longer than spathe. Male inflorescence up to 6 mm long, cylindric; yellow. Female inflorescence sub-globose. Neuters above female inflorescence few, clavate or obovoid with purple tip, those above the male subulate, white. Anthers minute, yellow. Ovary clavate green. Berries ovoid, 1-2 seeded; seeds globose, albuminous. Not common; in shady moist localities and grassy waste places. FI. & Fr.: July-September. Distribution: India, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Vietnam, Malaysia and Indonesia. Specimens examined: Jashapada, Cuttack district, Orissa, 1 7.vii. 1 999, P.C. Panda 6675; Bhubaneswar, Khurda district, Orissa, 17.vii.1999, S.C. Jena, 6671. Illustration: Wight, Icon. t. 791. 1844. Typhonium flagelliforme can be distinguished from its closely allied species Typhonium trilobatum in the field by its short height, smaller and shallowly lobed leaves, small and smooth tubers with a brownish-black skin and nature of the inflorescence. Both occur in similar habitat, but the former prefers relatively open places and soil having less organic materials. June 5, 2000 P. C. PANDA Taxonomy & Conservation Division Regional Plant Resource Centre, Bhubaneswar 751 015, Orissa, India. References Mabberley, D.J. (1997): The Plant Book, 2nd Edn, Delhi. Cambridge University Press, U.K. Saxena, H.O. & M. Brahmam ( 1 995): Flora of Orissa, Vol. Santapau, H. & A.N. Henry (1973): Dictionary of 4, Regional Research Laboratory and Orissa Forest flowering plants and ferns of India, CSM, New Development Corporation, Bhubaneswar. 38. OBSERVATIONS ON THE GENUS RADIOCOCCUS , FAMILY CHLOROPHYCEAE, A NEW RECORD FOR INDIA ( With one text-figure) Schmidle (1902) established the genus Radiococcus , a chlorococcalean. This genus is widely reported from Belgium, Germany, England (Schmidle 1902) and U.S.A. (Smith 1950). According to Philipose (1967), three species of Radiococcus are known to occur, which are not yet reported from India. Although Singh et al. (1953) have reported an alga from Allahabad, which they have identified as Radiococcus nimbatus, the description does not tally with that of Schmidle for this alga. The present paper describes Radiococcus nimbatus , which could be the first authentic report from India. The alga was collected from Ramgarh Lake, Jaipur while surveying the freshwater algae of Rajasthan in September. It was found growing in slow running water in a shallow ditch with other chlorococcalean and blue-green algae. The 158 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Fig. 1: Radiococcus nimbatus, a. Coenobia surrounded by mucilaginous sheath with fibrillar structures, b. Formation of autospores in a coenobium. temperature of the water was 27 °C and pH 8.0. It was reared into a unialgal culture using standard microbiological technique and maintained in Bold’s Basal Medium (Bischoff and Bold 1960) and Biphasic Medium (Pringsheim 1946). The alga was a coenobium of four cells and was surrounded by a wide envelope of mucilage with radiate fibrillar structures (Fig. la). Cells in the coenobium were usually arranged in a tetrahedral or opposite, decussate manner and grouped in fours (Fig. la), but occasionally one-celled, two-celled and eight- celled stages were also observed. The four-celled coenobia measured 14-23.5 pm; the individual cells measured 7.8-14.0 pm. The cells were spherical, but sometimes turned oval due to mutual pressure. Each cell possessed a single parietal chloroplast with a pyrenoid, which was normally positioned towards the periphery. Reproduction was performed by autospore formation (Fig. lb) and each cell of the colony was capable of forming daughter coenobia. The autocolonies were liberated by tearing through the parent cell wall. Schmidle (1902) and Smith segregated Radiococcus from Westella based upon the characters pertaining to the gelatinous matrix and arrangement of cells in a coenobium. Different species of the genus have been characterized by their cell and colony size and contents. Singh et al. (1983) reported Radiococcus nimbatus from Allahabad, India. According to them, the cells were 3-8 pm in diameter. The Camera Lucida drawing showed a smooth mucilaginous envelope without fibrillate radiation. Schmidle (1902) compared the measurements and cell structure of Radiococcus nimbatus and R. wildemanni. He mentioned that cells of R. wildemanni measured 3-5 pm, while that ofR. nimbatus measured 8-1 5 pm. The present alga, in all its features, resembles the type species described by Schmidle (1902). Therefore, it is the first record of the genus Radiococcus from India. June 5, 2000 PAWAN K. DADHEECH P.G. Department of Botany Government College, Ajmer 305 001, Rajasthan, India. PUSH PA SR1VASTAVA Department of Botany, University of Rajasthan, Jaipur 302 004, Rajasthan, India. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 159 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Refer Bischoff, H.W. & H.C. Bold (1960): Some soil algae from Enchanted Rock and related algal species. In: Phycological Studies 4. The University of Texas, Publn No. 6318, Illus. Austin, Texas. Pringsheim, E.G. (1946): Pure culture of algae. Their preparation and maintenance. University Press, Cambridge. Philipose, M.T. (1967): Chlorococcales, ICAR. New Delhi. N C E S Schmidle, V.W. (1902): Uber die Gattung Radiococcus Schmidle n. gen. Allg. Bot. Zeistchr. 8: 41-42. Singh, S.P., G.L. Tiwari & D.C. Pandey (1983): Genus Radiococcus (Chloroccocales) from India. Curr. Sci. 52: 1195. Smith, G.M. (1950): Freshwater algae of United States. McGraw-Hill Publishers, London and New York. CORRIGENDUM JBNHS , Vol.98(3), p. 440, column 2, line 13 for: While sliding down a slope, its head got sandwiched between two or more tree trunks from which it could not recover itself (Jain and Saandeep 2001). Read: While sliding down a slope, its head got sandwiched between two or more tree trunks from which it could not recover itself. There were similar cases of strangulation records from Karnataka (Jain and Saandeep 2001). 160 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002 THE SOCIETY’S PUBLICATIONS (Price for members) The Book of Indian Animals, by S.H. Prater, 3rd edition Rs. 2 1 0.00 The Book of Indian Birds, by Salim Ali, 12th revised edition Rs. 320.00 A Pictorial Guide to the Birds of the Indian Subcontinent, by Salim Ali & S. Dillon Ripley, 2nd revised edition Rs. 278.00 The Book of Indian Reptiles and Amphibians, by J.C. Daniel (under preparation) — The Book of Indian Shells, by Deepak Apte Rs. 225 .00 The Book of Indian Trees, by K.C. Sahni Rs. 210.00 Common Indian Wildflowers, by Isaac Kehimkar Rs. 280.00 Some Beautiful Indian Trees, by E. Blatter & W.S. Millard Rs. 225.00 Some Beautiful Indian Climbers and Shrubs, by N.L. Bor & M.B. 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Registered with the Registrar of Newspapers under RN 5685/ SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION LIBRARIES 3 9088 12051413 CONTENTS EDITORIAL 1 THE HONEY BEES OF INDIA, HYMENOPTERA: APIDAE ( With one text-figure) By Michael S. Engel 3 STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION OF TWO BIRD COMMUNITIES IN THE SOUTHERN WESTERN GHATS ( With five text-figures) By E.A. Jayson and D.N. Mathew 8 INDIVIDUAL VARIATION AND SEXUAL DIMORPHISM IN THAMNOECHA UNIFORMIS (BUTLER 1875),LEPIDOPTERA: SPHINGIDAE By Peter Smetacek 26 PETA JJR1STA NOBIL1S SINGHEI — FIRST RECORD IN INDIA AND A NOTE ON ITS TAXONOMY ( With one text-figure) By Anwaruddin Choudhury 30 THE INITIAL COLONISATION OF THE YAMUNA FLOOD PLAIN BY THE SIND SPARROW PASSER PYRRHONOTUS (With two text-figures and one plate) By Bill Harvey and Suresh C. Sharma 35 EDIBLE OYSTERS OF THE GENUS CRASSOSTREA SACCO 1897, ALONG THE RATNAGIRI COAST, MAHARASHTRA, INDIA By M.S. Sawant and A.M. Ranade 44 FRESHWATER FISHES OF SOUTHERN KERALA WITH NOTES ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF ENDEMIC AND ENDANGERED SPECIES By K. Raju Thomas, M. John George and C.R. Biju 47 CHARACTERISTICS AND SIGNIFICANCE OF SONG IN FEMALE ORIENTAL MAGPIE-ROBIN, COPSYCHUSSAU LARIS (With one text-figure) By Anil Kumar and Dinesh Bhatt 54 PSYCHOPHILY AND EVOLUTIONARY CONSIDERATIONS OF CADABA FRUTICOSA L. (CAPPARACEAE) By J.S.R. Aluri and S.P. Rao 59 A DICHOTOMOUS KEY FOR FIELD IDENTIFICATION OF THE ORDERS OF INDIAN DIPLOPODA (With ten text-figures) By Kubra Bano 64 NEW DESCRIPTIONS 72 REVIEWS 100 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 103 Printed by Bro. Leo at St. Francis Industrial Training Institute, Borivli, Mumbai 400 103 and published by J.C. Daniel for Bombay Natural History Society, Hornbill House, Dr. Salim Ali Chowk, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Mumbai 400 023. website: www.bnhs.org; email: bnhs@bom4.vsnl.net.in JOURNAL OF THE BOMBAY NATUBAL HISTORY SOCIETY AUGUST 2002 Vol. 99 (2) f BOARD OF EDITORS Editor J.C. DANIEL M.R. ALMEIDA AJ1TH KUMAR M.K. CHANDRASHEKARAN T.C. NARENDRAN B.F. CHHAPGAR A.R. RAHMANI R. GADAGKAR J.S. SINGH INDRANEIL DAS R. WHITAKER A.J.T. JOHNSINGH ^ Assistant Editor GAYATRI WATTAL UGRA INSTRUCTIONS TO CONTRIBUTORS 1. Papers which have been published or have been offered for publication elsewhere should not be submitted. 2. Papers should be submitted in duplicate, typed double space. Preferably an additional copy should be submitted on a floppy diskette (3.5") using MS Word. 3. Trinomials referring to subspecies should only be used where identification has been authentically established by comparison of specimens actually collected. 4. Photographs for reproduction must be clear, with good contrast. Prints should be at least 9 x 12 cm and on glossy glazed paper. Text-figures, line drawings and maps should be in Indian ink, preferably on tracing paper. 5. 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For the standardised common and scientific names of the birds of the Indian subcontinent refer to Buceros Vol. 6, No. 1 (2001). Hornbill House, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Mumbai 400 023. Editors, Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society VOLUME 99 (2): AUGUST 2002 CONTENTS EDITORIAL MONITORING THE INCUBATION BEHAVIOUR OF THE HOUBARA CHLA MYDOTIS UNDULATA WITH A TEMPERATURE LOGGER DUMMY EGG ( With two text-figures and one plate) By Qiao Jianfang, Yao Jun and Combreau Olivier PHENOTYPIC AND BEHAVIOURAL CHARACTERISTICS USED TO IDENTIFY WILD BUFFALO BUBALUS BUBALIS FROM FERAL BACKCROSSES IN NEPAL ( With two text-figures) By Joel T. Heinen DISTRIBUTION PATTERNS, RELATIVE ABUNDANCE AND MANAGEMENT OF MAMMALS IN INDIRA GANDHI WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, TAMIL NADU, INDIA ( With six text-figures) By M. Ananda Kumar, Mewa Singh, Sanjay K. Srivastava, A. Udhayan, H.N. Kumara and A.K. Sharma DERMAPTERA IN THE COLLECTION OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, MUMBAI By N. Chaturvedi and G.K. Srivastava CHARACTERIZATION OF THE GENETIC STATUS OF POPULATIONS OF RED JUNGLEFOWL ( With one text-figure) By I. Lehr Brisbin Jr., A. Townsend Peterson, Ronald Okimoto and George Amato..... THE GENUS PONT1A FABRICIUS (LEPIDOPTERA: PIERIDAE) IN THE KUMAON HIMALAYA ( With one text-figure) By Peter Smetacek A COLLECTION OF FRULLANIA FROM NILGIRi WITH F. DENSILOBA ST. AS A NEW RECORD FOR INDIA ( With two text-figures) By S.C. Srivastava and Afroz Alam DEBARKING OF TEAK TECTONA GRAND IS LINN. F. BY GAUR BOS GAURUS H. SMITH DURING SUMMER IN A TROPICAL DRY DECIDUOUS HABITAT OF CENTRAL INDIA By M.K.S. Pasha, G. Areendran, K. Sankar and Qamar Qureshi HABITAT PREFERENCE AND ENVIRONMENTAL RELATIONS OF HYDROBIA SP., MOLLUSCA: GASTROPODA, IN THE INTERTIDAL SUBSOIL OF A TROPICAL MANGROVE REGION ( With one text-figure) By R. Sunil Kumar BARBULE STRUCTURE OF BIRD FEATHERS ( With five plates) By A. Rajaram 161 165 173 184 211 217 224 232 238 245 250 NEW DESCRIPTIONS MELA N OCHA E T OMYJA , A NEW GENUS OF CHLOROPIDAE (DIPTERA) FROM THE ORIENTAL REGION ( With five text-figures) By P.T.Cherian 258 TWO NEW SPECIES OF GENUS COLLOTHECA HARRING 1913 (ROTIFERA: MONOGONONTA) FROM FRESHWATERS OF TRIPURA, INDIA ( With two text-figures) By S. Banik 262 A NEW CYPRINID FISH SPECIES OF BARILIUf HAMILTON FROM THE CHATRICKONG RIVER, MANIPUR, INDIA ( With one text figure) By Keishing Selim and Waikhom Vishwanath M 267 A NEW SPECIES OF EXACUM L., GENTIANACEAE, FROM AGASTHIYAMALAI (POTHIGAI), SOUTHERN WESTERN GHATS, INDIA ( With one text-figure) By R. Gopalan 271 THREE NEW SPECIES FROM THE SPIDER FAMILIES AMAUROBIIDAE, THOM1SIDAE AND SALTICIDAE (ARANEAE: ARACHNIDA) FROM INDIA ( With twenty-eight text-figures) By D.B. Bastawade ... 274 REVIEWS 1 . WATERBIRDS OF NORTHERN INDIA Reviewed by Asad R. Rahmani 282 2. ETHNOBOTANY OF THE PRIMITIVE TRIBES IN RAJASTHAN Reviewed by M.R. Almeida 283 3. PARASITIC HYMENOPTERA AND BIOLOGICAL CONTROL Reviewed by Gayatri Ugra 284 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES MAMMALS 1. On some large-sized red pandas Ailunis fulgens F. Cuvier By Anwaruddin Choudhury 285 2. Hunting attempt by Nilgiri marten Martes gwatkinsi Horsfield, Family Mustelidae, in Periyar Tiger Reserve, Kerala By Joji John and Madhukumar 286 3. Possible occurrence of Tibet red deer Ceixiis elciphus wallichi in Arunachal Pradesh By Anwaruddin Choudhury 286 4. Himalayan marmot Mannota bobcik (Muller) resighted after eight years at Kyongnosla Alpine Sanctuary, East Sikkim By Usha Ganguli-Lachungpa and Bishnu Lai Sharma 288 5. Two whale records from Tamil Nadu, Southern India By Kumaran Sathasivam 289 6. A comment on the review of “Primates of Northeast India” published in JBNHS Vol. 97(3) By Anwaruddin Choudhury 290 7. “Primates of Northeast India” published in JBNHS 97(3) — A comment By Arun Srivastava 292 BIRDS 8. Status of spot-billed pelican Pe/ecanus philippensis , Family Pelecanidae, in Gujarat By B.M. Parasharya 295 u 9. A large congregation of black-shouldered kite E/anus caeruleus at Ranthambore National Park By V. Srinivas 297 10. Attempted feeding by a shikra Accipiter badius, Family Accipitridae, on buffstriped keelback Amphiesma stolata. Family Colubridae By Samiran Jha 298 11. Attempt by the crested serpent-eagle Spilornis cheela to seize the Indian cobra Naja naja By Kiran Purandare 299 12. Breeding by the Indian courser Cursorius coromandelicus in winter in Raipur, Chhattisgarh, India By A.M.K. Bharos and Mohit Sahu 299 13. Sighting of a rufous-necked stint Calidris ruftcollis (Pallas) in West Bengal, India By Gordon Frost and Heinz Lainer 300 14. Occurrence and association of red-necked phalarope Phalaropus lobatus with other species at Sambhar, Rajasthan By Flarkirat S. Sangha 301 1 5 . Pompadour green pigeon Treron pompadora affinis and large hawk-cuckoo Hierococcyx sparverioides on the Palkonda Hills, Peninsular India By Aasheesh Pittie and S. Balachandran 302 16. Eurasian eagle-owl Bubo bubo tibetanus Bianchi at 2,100 m in North Sikkim By Usha Ganguli-Lachungpa 305 17. On the status of Hypocolius ampelinus Bonaparte in the Indian subcontinent By M.K. Himmatsinhji, J.K. Tiwari and S.N. Varu 306 18. Commensal foraging relationships of the white-browed fantail Rhipidura aureola in Myanmar By David I. King and John H. Rappole 308 19. Roosting behaviour of common tailorbird Orthotomus sutorius (Pennant) By Anish P. Andheria 312 20. Sight records of crimson sunbird Aethopvga siparaja in Islamabad, Pakistan By Sudhir Vyas 316 21. Foliage-dew bathing in oriental white-eye Zosterops pa/pebrosus , Family Zosteropidae By K.S. Gopi Sundar and Capt. Jaideep Chanda 318 22. Food habits of the baya weaver Ploceus phitippinus (Linn.) By S.N. Varu 320 23. Four new bird records for Sindh, Pakistan By Roger A.L. Sutton 320 24. Addition to the checklist of the birds of Pakistan, Vol. 1 Non-passeriformes, Vol. 2 Passeriformes By T.J. Roberts 323 25. Some interesting bird records from the Delhi area By Sudhir Vyas 325 REPTILES 26. The gharial Gavialis gangeticus in Indravati river? By M.K. Ranjitsinh and L.A.K. Singh 330 27. Communal egg laying by Cnemaspis indica in Mukuruthi National Park, Western Ghats, India By S. Bhupathy and A.M.A. Nixon 330 AMPHIBIA 28. Range extension of Rana malabarica (Bibr.) in Madhya Pradesh By E.P. Eric D'cunha 332 FISHES 29. A note on Mesonoemacheilus herrei Naibant and Banarescu (Cypriniformes: Balitoridae: Noemacheilinae) By K. Rema Devi and T.J. Indra 333 30. Fish fauna of some streams and rivers in the Western Ghats of Maharashtra By M. Arunachalam, A. Sankaranarayanan, A. Manimekalan, R. Soranam and J.A. Johnson 337 INSECTS 3 1 . Checklist of ants from Northwest India-SI By Himender Bharti 341 32. On the diptera of Nayachar Island, West Bengal By B. Mitra, P. Parui and D. Banerjee 343 33. New larval food plant of the Blue Tiger butterfly Tirumala limniace (Cramer), Lepidoptera: Danaidae By Vinayan P. Nair 347 34. New larval food plant of the Grass Demon Udaspes folus Cramer and the Restricted Demon Notocrypta curvifascia Felder & Felder, Lepidoptera: Hesperiidae By Vinayan P. Nair 348 35. Biodiversity of mantids, Insecta: Mantodea, in Pune (Western Ghats) with notes on other regions of Maharashtra By H.V. Ghate and S.P. Ranade 348 iii OTHER INVERTEBRATES 36. Occurrence of spiders Triaeris manii and Tr icier is poonaensis, Family Oonopidae, in a banana agroecosystem in Vadodara, Gujarat By Manju Siliwal and Dolly Kumar 352 37. Variations in the web of two related species of spiders Gasteracantha unguifera Simon and Gasteracantha hasseltii C.L. Koch By Manju Siliwal, B. Suresh and Bonny Pilo 355 38. First record of Julia japonica, a bivalved gastropod from the Indian Ocean By Tapas Chatterjee 357 BOTANY 39. Occurrence of Kieinhovia hospita L. (Sterculiaceae) in Marathwada region of Maharashtra State By O.S. Rathor and V.B. Chavan 359 40. External morphology of testa in mango Mangifera indica and its value in the cultivar characterisation of the crop By R. Prakashkumar and S. Suresh 359 41. Styiosanthes hamatus (Linn.) Taub. (Papilionaceae), a new record to the flora of Gujarat By P.S. Nagar and S.M. Pandya 363 42. Unusual number of carpels and fertile stamens in flowers of Bauhinia variegata L., Leguminosae: Caesalpinioideae By S. Bandyopadhyay 364 43 . Actinostemma tenerum Griff., Cucurbitaceae, a new phytogeographic record from Aiigarh, Uttar Pradesh By Athar Ali Khan 365 44. Two new additions to Cooke's Flora of Bombay Presidency By B.G. Gavade 366 45. Ethnobotanical uses of the Polygonaceae in Nepal By Narayan P. Manandhar 368 46. A new name for Dioscorea glabra var. hastifolia Prain et Burkill from the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, India By Akramul Hoque and P.K. Mukherjee 371 47. Stylidium tenellum Swartz (Stylidiaceae), a new record for Maharashtra State By S.M. Bhuskute 374 48. Additions to the grass genera of Maharashtra By C.B. Salunkhe, S.R. Yadav and C.R. Patil 376 49. Toxic phanerogamic plants of Manipur By S. Shyamjai Singh, L. Janmejay Singh and P. Kumar Singh 378 50. Status of pteridophytic diversity from Dewalthal hills of Pithoragarh (W. Himalaya) By H.C. Pande, R.C. Pande and Mrittunjai Srivastava 382 Cover Photograph: Whale shark Rhincodon typus by Phillip Colla IV Editorial SCIENCE AND SENTIMENT A little learning is a dang ’rous thing; Drink deep, or taste not the Pierian spring: There shallow draughts intoxicate the brain, And drinking largely sobers us again. — Alexander Pope Dr. Salim Ali was a pragmatic wildlife conservationist; he thought first with his head and then used his heart, and he was respected for it. Today, unfortunately, there is a trend for proactive “conservationists” — many of whom are not even trained academically in wildlife studies, to hog the media limelight with fancy programmes and solutions. Last year, the Government of India issued a notification banning capture of ALL species of Elasmobranchs by placing them in Schedule I of the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 (Notification in the Gazette of India, Part 11, Section 3(ii), dated July 11, 2001). I would like to comment on this. 1 fully endorse listing whale sharks and manta rays (also called devil rays — Mobula diacantha) in Schedule I. The reason given for placing elasmobranchs in Schedule I was that foreign fishing boats come to the Andaman Sea, poach sharks, cut off their fins and throw the sharks back into the sea. The procedure is despicable and deserves to be severely condemned. But the remedy is to beef up naval and coast guard patrolling, confiscate the boats and fishing gear, and have stiff jail sentences and hefty fines to deter the perpetrators. Instead, in a knee-jerk reaction, all elasmobranchs were brought into Schedule I. There is no target fishery for elasmobranchs, i.e., fishermen do not have gear intended to catch only these fishes. These fish form a by-catch, i.e., they come in gear designed to catch other fishes and are thus caught along with them. Some fifty years back, long-line fishing was in vogue. This gear was not primarily meant for catching sharks, but sharks were caught in fair numbers, being attracted by the bait and getting hooked. As this gear is labour intensive, it is no longer in use. Nowadays, apart from stray elasmobranch catches in trawl nets, sharks are mainly caught in gill-nets — here, too, as a by-catch, because gill-nets are used mainly to catch large, commercially important fish such as giant thread-fin ( Polynemus indicus ), Indian salmon ( Eleutheronema tetradactylum) and jewfish ( Pseudosciaena sina , Otolithus brunneus). Pelagic sharks have to swim all the time, even during sleep, in order to respire. If they stop moving forward, their respiration ceases and they die. Hence, once sharks are caught in a gill-net, their respiration stops and they suffocate to death in a few minutes. Gill-nets are lifted on to the fishing boat every few hours, so, by the time these are hauled up the sharks are already dead. Unlike in western (developed) countries, where only shark fins are used for soup, in India shark flesh is also consumed, so that no part of a shark is wasted. Shark liver oil is much richer in Vitamin A content compared to cod liver oil; in fact, in order to conform to the international standard of 20,000 International Units of Vitamin A per millilitre of oil, shark liver oil has to be diluted with groundnut oil. Sharks are thus a valuable source of income to fishermen, Traditionally, fishermen bring them (along with rays and skates, which are also elasmobranchs) to the market. Once these are banned, the fishermen would be forced to throw them back into the sea. And, as explained above, since they are already dead by this time, the basic purpose of conserving them would not be served. On the contrary, their putrefying flesh will only serve to increase sea water pollution. One reason for placing sharks in Schedule 1 is that sharks are not prolific breeders, but this is only a result of efficient evolution over tens of thousands of years. Sharks are at the apex of the food pyramid, so that they have to be fewer in number, so as to be in harmonious balance with their prey population; otherwise they would soon exhaust their food supply, and then die of starvation. Again, being predators at the top of the food pyramid, they have no natural enemies (except man). So, when the graph of natural mortality versus fishing mortality is drawn, the ratio appears to be skewed, and can be misinterpreted by novice conservationists to show high fishing mortality. Because of considerable resentment necessitating reconsideration, common sense finally prevailed, and the Government have notified again (Notification in Part II, Section 3, Subsection (ii), Extraordinary ofthe Gazette of India dated December 15, 2001), relaxing the blanket ban and imposing restrictions only on certain species by placing them in Schedule 1 of the Wildlife (Protection) Act. Along with elasmobranchs, sea horses, corals, many sea shells and ALL sea cucumbers were also placed in Schedule I of the Wildlife (Protection) Act. J fully agree that sea horses and corals, and also a few sea shells are threatened due to over-collection and deserve protection. A few (three or four) species of the larger sea cucumbers are collected for export, as they form the basic ingredient of “trepang” or “beche-de-mer” — a culinary delicacy in southeast Asia. . In the 1960s, Mr. S.R. Sane and I were studying the seashore life of Mumbai, and this resulted in a number of scientific papers. One of these dealt with the Echinodermata of Mumbai (comprising starfish, sea urchins, sea cucumbers and feather stars). Unlike many fish and invertebrates, these forms cannot be identified just by looking at the live animals. Their identity (like that of sponges) is based on their hard spicules, which have to be seen under a microscope only after macerating the skin in hot acids. In our studies, too, this method was used. We collected, at the most, half a dozen specimens of each species. Almost all of these were recorded for the first time from Mumbai. Another notable find was that some species are not permanent residents of Mumbai's sea shores, but come sporadically, as if by magic, from somewhere else and, in that year, are found in their hundreds. Our finding has contributed, albeit in a small way, to the study of this little known group. But today, unfortunately, we cannot collect even a single specimen without infringing the law. Can science progress in this manner? B.F. CHHAPGAR ACKNOWLEDGEMENT We are grateful to the Ministry of Science and Technology, Govt of India, FOR ENHANCED FINANCIAL SUPPORT FOR THE PUBLICATION OF THE JOURNAL. CITATION OF IC/EC NUMBERS FOR GENETIC MATERIALS It is brought to our notice by the National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR), Pusa Campus, New Delhi 110 012, India, that authors writing papers on particular plant materials (genetic materials) should indicate IC numbers for Indigenous Collections and EC numbers for Exotic Collections. Authors can directly procure these single accession numbers for each genetic material from NBPGR. In the present Intellectual Property Rights regime, it is in our national interest that all the germplasm material possess a single national accession number. Authors are therefore requested to procure IC/EC numbers from NBPGR and state them on the manuscript, without which papers will not be accepted for publication. Editors I .= ¥' ;• V ’ - t /» ■ - ; ■ : . r . j' . \ . : : ; , !* » /: . I 1 ' v. • " :• ' . • • : " ' • ( ' '■ ; V 1; . - . ■ , " JOURNAL OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY August 2002 Vol. 99 No. 2 MONITORING THE INCUBATION BEHAVIOUR OF THE HOUBARA CHLAMYDOTJS UNDULATA WITH A TEMPERATURE LOGGER DUMMY EGG1 Qiao Jianfang, Yao Jun2 and Combreau Olivier3 ( With two text-figures and one plate) Key words: China, Xinjiang, egg temperature, Chlamydotis undulata, houbara The incubating behaviour of two female houbara was successfully monitored with the help of a temperature logger egg from May 22 to June 11, 1999 in the Xinjiang province of the People's Republic of China. As a rule, the female showed a bimoda! daily activity pattern (morning and evening) during the incubation stage. On an average, a female will leave her nest 3 to 9 times daily for periods ranging from 8 to 26 minutes, but will spend an overall 94±2% of her daily time on the nest. The average daily temperature of the egg, when the female attended the nest, varied from 31.9 °C to 36.5 °C. When the female left the nest unattended, the temperature of the egg generally dropped to an average minimum of 24.9 °C, but could also rise to 40.6 °C (absolute maximum) in hot conditions. Following the seasonal increase in daily air temperature as summer progressed, the average daily egg temperature increased from 3 1 .9 °C to 36.2 °C as the incubation advanced. Introduction For several years, the National Avian Research Centre (NARC) in Abu Dhabi has been developing an ambitious project aimed at defining a conservation and management strategy for the Asiatic subspecies of the houbara, Chlamydotis undulata , based on sound scientific knowledge of its population dynamics (Launay 1998). A houbara caught in Abu Dhabi, and followed by satellite tracking, migrated to the centre of China in spring and summer 1997. With these in mind, a three-year agreement between NARC and the Xinjiang Institute of Ecology and Accepted October, 2000 2Xinjiang Institute of Ecology & Geography, CAS, No. 40 South Beijing Road, 83001 1 , Urumqi, People’s Republic of China. ’National Avian Research Centre, P. O. Box 45553, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates Geography, People’s Republic of China, was started in 1997. The agreement focuses on the study of the breeding biology, migration and the implementation of pluri-annual surveys to monitor the general trends in the population. Despite the high conservation profile of the houbara, there are few ecological studies conducted in the wild. In particular, information on the egg temperature and activity rhythm of the houbara in the wild is very limited in the literature, and many aspects remain unknown. Some information on the feeding activity of the incubating female was collected by Gaucher (unpubl. data) in Algeria, and a preliminary observation of the incubation behaviour was conducted by Launay etal. (1997) in Uzbekistan. This study was conducted with a temperature logger inserted in an egg and added to a nest clutch in the wild. The logger presented JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 99(2), AUG. 2002 165 MONITORING THE JNCUBA TION BEHA VIOUR OF THE HOUBARA information on the changes in the egg temperature and on the activity rhythm of the incubating female. Study Area and Method The study was conducted from April 27 to July 15, 1999 by a team from the National Avian Research Centre (UAE) and the Xinjiang Institute of Ecology and Geography (China). The study area is located in the semi-desert steppes of the eastern fringe of the Jungar Basin, Xinjiang Province of the People’s Republic of China. The area was chosen on the basis of previous observations of houbara breeding (Gao et al. 1997). It is a high plateau bordered by the Tian Shan Mountains to the south and complex sand dunes to the north. The substrate is predominantly clay and gravel to the south, changing to sand towards the north. The topography of the area varies from flat to slightly undulating. Various associations of Artemisia sp., Anabasis sp., and Ceratoides sp. dominate the vegetation in the area. This vegetation is typically short (5-10 cm). Irregular bushy formations of Salsola sp. and Haloxyion sp. occur sparingly. More than twenty ephemeral plant species, including Plantago sp., Lepidium sp., Ceratocarpns sp., Tulipa sp., Scorzonera sp., and Corydalis sp. commonly occur in early spring following precipitation. The overall plant cover lies typically within 10 to 20%. Information on incubation behaviour was obtained by means of a dummy egg containing a temperature logger. One infertile egg from a natural nest was cut open and drained, and the temperature logger was fitted inside with cotton wool. The two halves were then glued together. The data logger was a Stow Away TidbiT Temp logger (TBI32) made by ANSET (USA) with a ±0.4 °C accuracy. The logger can operate from -30 °C to 70 °C. It was set to take one reading every two minutes, which allowed for 24 days of monitoring. The logger was downloaded to a computer once at the end of the study, - i/ . ; . ; , . ? .i» v.-tf ' The air temperature was recorded twice a day, at 0700 hrs and 1400 hrs, and was compared with the temperature of the logger egg when the female left the nest. We studied the effect of disturbance by cars on the behaviour of the incubating female. All the cars were equipped with a GPS set to record the track routes, which were downloaded to a computer every alternate day. The track routes were then compared to the nest locations and the effect on the females’ behaviour was assessed through the changes in egg temperature following our visits to the nests. The temperature was assessed when the car approached the nest, giving another 15 minutes to allow the egg to cool after the female left the nest. Results and Discussion The temperature logger egg was placed successively inside two nests, which had already been in incubation. It was left in the nest until the hatching of the natural eggs. From May 22 to 28 (5 complete days), the egg was placed in a nest of 4 eggs and then moved to a nest of 5 eggs from May 28 to June 11(12 complete days). Incubation behaviour: We observed a decrease or series of decreases in the temperature of the egg in the early mornings and evenings (Fig.lA-E). This was interpreted as the time when the female left the nest for other activities, such as feeding. Serial drop in temperatures could be due to predators, cars or displaying males disturbing the female. In Uzbekistan, Launay et al. (1997) found that the presence of displaying males in the vicinity of the nest was obviously disturbing for the nesting female. On an average, a female will leave her nest 5.2 ±1.7 times (3 to 9 times) a day for periods from 8 to 26 minutes (average: 17.4 ±5.3 min). The total daily duration of these activity periods varied from 50 to 134 minutes (average 86 166 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002 Temperature (°C) Temperature fC) Temperature (°C) MONITORING THE INCUBATION BEHA VIOUR OF THE HOUBARA & Srp Pr* .\N .t? .cJ5 .t? <$• • Time Time .0^ .F' .\N .(J5 O* 9/ ' *• ^N- Time O- V • N40 years or >6 average buffalo generations, estimated at 6.5 years), one cannot be sure that animals counted as ‘backcrossed’ are not ‘wild’ in at least some cases It also may not matter, for animals backcrossed for so many generations. An f-6 backcross would be 98.44% ‘wild’ based on nuclear DNA 1 00[ 1 .0-0.56] (Falconer 1981). Such animals may be appropriate to include in a conservation breeding or translocation scheme, pending mitochondrial DNA analysis, provided that their appearance and behaviour are consistent with wild individuals. These issues are further addressed below. Phenotypic Characteristics of Wild Buffalo Wild buffalo go through changes in pelage with age. Young (< 6 months) calves are buff in colour, and begin to darken in the first year. They retain lighter coloration into the second year, but the coat continues to darken until the females achieve adult coloration by the third year. Thus, young, juvenile and adult females can be distinguished on the basis of coloration, and overall body and horn size. Adult coloration is very dark, with noticeable whitish markings in several places on the body. Wild buffalo have one or two white chevron marks on the underside of the neck. They also have white hocks, white tail tips, and fine white markings around the eyes and along the sides of the nose and mouth. The white markings tend to become more apparent in adults, may fade with advanced age, and are not necessarily visible on new calves. In all cases, they are visible on late first year calves. Young males can be distinguished from adults into the third and fourth years; they are noticeably smaller and the pelage retains the light coloration. Adult males at prime breeding age (> 4 years) tend to be very black, except for the whitish markings described. The horns of wild buffalo form wide, upwardly sweeping semicircles and lack appreciable curvature in the lateral vertical plane. Horns begin to grow early in life and are apparent from a distance in all calves by the age of 6 months. Horns on very young calves extend horizontally from the skull, and lack any curl. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002 177 PHENOTYPIC AND BEHA VIOURAL CHARACTERISTICS OF WILD BUFFALO As in most Bovids, horns grow throughout life and can be used as a proxy for age among adults. Since growth rates can vary based on nutrition, sex and dominance status of individuals, the censuses did not record age estimates for the adults. On an average, among adults, females tend to have longer horns than males, but males tend to have much thicker horns. Thus, if the genitalia are not visible (typically the situation in the tall grasses of Kosi Tappu and other places in which purely wild stock are thought to occur), adults can be sexed by viewing the horns alone. Bulls are noticeably larger and have massive musculature. First and second year calves are difficult to sex because it is usually not possible to approach wild herds close enough to see the genitalia. Thus, sex classes were assigned for adults (> 2 years old) only. In contrast, the typical ‘river’ breeds of domestic buffalo common in South Asia are generally much darker throughout life and show few to none of the white markings described above (see Cockrill 1974). Hall and Ruane (1993) recognized 74 breeds or varieties of domestic buffalo (fewer than for any other major domesticated mammal); some breeds retain light- colored tail tips and hocks. They are smaller and their horns are usually very small with noticeable curvature along both horizontal and vertical planes. Thus, pure domestic buffalo can be told from wild buffalo rather easily in Nepal and Central India. Some lesser-developed breeds of domestic buffalo, especially the ‘swamp’ breeds more common in Southeast Asia (Cockrill 1974), retain a few wild phenotypic characters and many of the buffalo residing in Kosi Tappu and elsewhere are known to be backcrosses. Thus, there are many individuals that look essentially wild, although they are not pure. Other field criteria are, therefore, needed for identifying wild stock. Behavioural Characteristics of Wild Buffalo Behavioural work is increasingly being studied in conservation biology (Caro 1998) and several behavioural characteristics were used to differentiate between wild and backcrossed buffalo here. The literature suggests that wild buffalo females remain in the herds in which they were bom, while males leave their natal herds, usually in or before their third year (Heinen 1993a). Herding behaviour can vary seasonally in Australia (Tulloch 1978), but this was not observed in Kosi Tappu females. Members of wild herds of females and their dependent offspring (called ‘mixed’ herds by Heinen 1993a, not to be confused with ‘backcrossed’ female herds) are thought to be highly philopatric. Again, this is not so in the feral Australian population (Tulloch 1970). Dahmer (1978) described two mixed herds in Kosi Tappu in 1976, the north and south herds, and Heinen (1993a) relocated those herds in 1986/88 in highly overlapping home ranges with those mapped by Dahmer. Heinen and Singh (2000) relocated the herds again in 2000 and found that their home ranges had not changed appreciably from the previous work in spite of the fact that the main channel of the Kosi River had changed course (Fig. 2). Animals in mixed herds showed a great deal of phenotypic uniformity compared to those in backcrossed herds, and herd members were always seen in close proximity to each other in all three Kosi Tappu studies. Backcrossed herds were seen in variable groupings, sometimes with as few as 6 animals. Mixed herds were always seen with one herd bull in attendance; backcrossed herds were also generally seen with an attendant wild bull, but not necessarily so. Several matings, between wild bulls and feral backcrosses, were observed in 1986, 1988 and 2000 (Heinen, unpublished field notes). Herding behaviour in single adult males in Kosi Tappu is highly variable. Younger males (up to four years, as estimated from horn length and body size) were frequently seen in small groups with other males (6-8 animals), whereas 178 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY 99(2), AUG. 2002 PHENOTYPIC AND BEHA VIOURAL CHARACTERISTICS OF WILD BUFFALO older males were frequently seen alone or in pairs. Both Dahmer (1978) and Heinen (1993a) recorded larger herds of older males on occasion, and thus, this behavior may vary seasonally or even daily. Herd bulls are those that accompany female herds, and no more than one at a time has been observed attending any herd, be it mixed (wild) or backcrossed. Another aspect of behaviour that can be used as a clue in identification is flight distance. The mixed herds counted as wild in Kosi Tappu were extremely wary of any human approach, be it on foot, boat, elephant, or in vehicles, and all counts had to be made from relatively long distances (>150 m and usually more) using high powered binoculars. Females in Kosi Tappu have been observed frequently using ‘phalanx’ behaviour to protect calves from approaching humans prior to fleeing, also described for wild type buffalo in Sri Lanka (Eisenberg and Lockhart 1972). Phalanx behaviour is defined as adult females forming a lateral line, each facing the intruder, with calves interspersed between the adults. The backcrossed herds were all relatively easy to approach in vehicles (<100 m) and most of them allowed walking humans to approach within c. 150 m or less. They tended not to form a phalanx before fleeing. These subtle behavioural differences imply that the semi-feral backcrossed herds are rounded up by their owners on occasion, probably annually, to collect first year calves (especially males) for market (Dahmer 1978 and Heinen 1993a). Local villagers told us that these animals could be lured with salt licks like feral cattle ( Bos indicus) breeding in the reserve. Herd bulls tended to flee with their females on human approach. In contrast, single adult wild bulls allowed fairly close approach, frequently within 100 m or less. In all such cases, they faced the intruder and stood their ground. If a human came too close, the single adult bulls were likely to take one or several steps forward. Closer approach could presumably lead to a charge: several people have been injured or killed over the years in Kosi Tappu as a result of such encounters (Heinen 1993a). There are no records of wild or backcrossed females in Kosi Tappu charging humans directly. Discussion Mixed herds of wild buffalo with all the aforementioned phenotypic traits, with little visible phenotypic variability among individuals, a consistent herd structure (when not disturbed), using consistent home ranges over long periods of time, and with behavioural patterns that showed phalanx formation and intolerance to human approach were censused in three different seasons in Kosi Tappu from 1976 to 2000. All other females and calves that looked wild were considered backcrossed, in spite of the fact that some individuals in backcrossed herds displayed all phenotypic traits of wild buffalo, and all individuals in those herds displayed most traits (Table 2). These methods may tend to undercounting of the wild buffalo. For example, a record sized female buffalo in Kosi Tappu was alive during Heinen’s 1986-1988 study. The animal displayed all the traits of a wild buffalo, but was consistently seen with a herd in which some members lacked Table 2 CENSUS RESULTS FOR BACKCROSSED BUFFALO HERDS CENSUSED DURING 2000 Herd Adult Females 2nd year 1st year Total 1. 25 9 6 40 2. 15 8 5 28 3. 8 1 3 12 4. 3 1 2 6 5. 4 2 1 7 6. 8 1 0 9 7. 5 2 2 9 8. 7 3 2 12 9. 5 2 1 8 Total 80 29 22 131 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002 179 PHENOTYPIC AND BEHA V 10 URAL CHARACTERISTICS OF WILD BUFFALO some wild phenotypic traits. Some females in this herd, for example, had distinctively more curl in the horns than was the case in the north and south herds, and some lacked a few of the characteristic white markings. Thus the female, which died of natural causes in 1 994 and whose rack is now on display at the reserve headquarters, was not considered ‘wild’ (Heinen 1993a). Other methods, however, surely overcount wild buffalo. Suwal (1993) recorded a population of 158 in 1993, only 5 years after Heinen (1993a) recorded 93. This corresponds to a sustained population growth rate of >10% per year. Possible, but not likely for a large artiodactyl that generally produces a single offspring and usually calves biannually (Bronson 1989). It is suspected that Suwal (1993) counted the large backcrossed herd seen regularly in the late 1980s (whose descendants were seen again in 2000; Herd 1 in Table 2) as ‘wild’ (the herd described above), and some members weren’t based on phenotypic traits alone. Since females are thought to stay with their natal herds, it is likely that the matriarchal-line was of domestic origin and that the animals had been backcrossing with wild males for at least 6 generations. Since these animals acted essentially wild, and only a few minor phenotypic traits visible on some individuals were used to distinguish them from wild stock, it is possible that members of this herd could be used in a translocation program. However, that cannot be advised until mitochondrial DNA studies can be performed to determine how different the matriarchal-line really is from wild buffalo. Similarly, Chaudhary (1999) recorded a population of 174 wild buffalo in Kosi Tappu (in 1999), which is more likely than Suwal’s (1993) estimate, but results from 2000 (Heinen and Singh, in press; Table 1) showed a decrease of 17% one year later in spite of many recent births. Evidence thus suggests that some studies were not long enough to allow researchers adequate Table 1 POPULATION STRUCTURE OF WILD BUFFALO rN KOSI TAPPU RESERVE AND ANNUAL POPULATION GROWTH RATE Year Adult Male Female 2nd year 1st year Total Calves/ cows 1976 12 18 22 11 63 0.61 1987 32 29 14 16 91 0.55 1988 37 33 8 15 93 0.45 2000 56 53 17 19 145 0.36 rl (1976 to 1987) = 0.033, r2 (1987 to 1988) = 0.022, r3 (1988 to 2000) = 0.037, r total (1976 to 2000) = 0.035. 1976 (Dahmer 1978), 1987, 1988 (Heinen 1993a) and 2000 (Heinen and Singh, in Press) time to familiarize themselves with all the characteristics described above to identify the wild stock. Evidence still suggests (Heinen 1993a) that there is little chance of domestic genes entering the population of wild buffalo because there is little chance of a domestic male competing with wild males and monopolizing breeding in a mixed herd. Heinen and Singh (2000) saw three domestic males in the Reserve in March 2000, but all were grazing near villages along the boundary and far from any mixed or backcrossed herds. No wild male counted in these studies had any phenotypic or behavioural traits suggesting that it was backcrossed. Furthermore, local buffalo owners informed us that they do not keep domestic males with their herds because wild males will attack them, and that their goal was to crossbreed their females with wild males, as the backcrossed males command higher prices when sold as draught animals. There is no evidence, therefore, that either backcrossed domestic, semi-feral, or feral males eventually enter the breeding population in Kosi Tappu. Shrivastava (pers. comm.) received similar information from the local buffalo owners around Kaziranga National Park, Assam during a recent study (September, 2000 to January, 2001). Thus, 180 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002 PHENOTYPIC AND BEHAVIOURAL CHARACTERISTICS OF WILD BUFFALO the evidence suggests that both the reserves contain populations of pure wild buffalo in addition to semi-feral and backcrossed herds from which male calves are removed. Conclusions Hedges (1995) discussed the need for genetic studies, both mitochondrial and nuclear, to assess differences among the putative wild, wild type, feral, semi-feral and domestic buffalo that occur throughout tropical Asia. The first major genetic study of wild buffalo is currently underway in Kaziranga National Park (Dr. P. Malik pers. comm.). Even if appropriate mitochondrial genetic markers that differentiate wild from backcrossed matriarchal lines are isolated, detailed study should also be conducted at other sites because wild buffalo in Assam are noticeably larger and considered to be a distinct subspecies from those in Central India or Nepal. The available evidence suggests that animals counted as ‘wild’ in Kosi Tappu were truly so, and some females and calves recorded as ‘backcrosses’ may also be wild, or at least backcrossed for enough generations to make the distinction arbitrary. Thus, the methods described here are conservative indicators of what constitutes a wild buffalo. This species is threatened with extinction throughout its range. I suggest that translocations can be planned with the current information by focusing on animals from herds that display all phenotypic and behavioural characteristics of the wild form. There are numerous reserves throughout lowland Nepal and North and Central India that are within the known historical range R E F E R Anonymous (1997): CITES Draft Listing Proposal For Asiatic Wild Buffalo. Unpubl. Report to CITES Secretariat, Promulgated by the Government of Thailand. 20 pp. Bronson, F.H. ( 1989): Mammalian Reproductive Biology. of the wild buffalo, but do not have populations. The Government of Nepal is considering a translocation proposal based on recommendations made from the identification criteria used here (Heinen and Singh, 2000). Furthermore, if future genetic work shows that some backcrossed feral females are essentially wild by nuclear DNA criteria, do not contain specific mitochondrial DNA markers that may render them less fit, and display most phenotypic and all behavioural traits consistent with wild buffalo, then such animals should also be considered for use in translocation projects. Acknowledgments 1 thank Dr. T.M. Maskey, Director General and Mr. N. Paudel, Senior Ecologist, Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation for permission to work in Kosi Tappu, Mr. L. Yadhav, Warden of Kosi Tappu, and his staff for facilitating our stay. Mr. Ganga Ram helped in field censuses in 1986/1988 and 2000. Mr. C. Shrestha served as our driver. Dr. J. Flamand of the Zoological Society of London, Dr. G. Ghaire of the Ministry of Forests and Soil Conservation, and Dr. M. Gregory of the Nepal/EC Project for Livestock Disease Control accompanied us for part of the census and obtained blood samples for genetic and antibody analyses. This work was supported by a sabbatical leave from Florida International University. O. Byers, S. Hedges, B. Read, U.S. Seal, S. Srikosamatara and other members of the Asian Wild Cattle and Captive Breeding Specialist Groups of IUCN’s Species Survival Commission provided encouragement, insights and important references. ENCES University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL, USA. 267 pp. Byers, ()., S. Hedges & U.S. Seal (1995): Asian Wild Cattle Conservation Assessment and Management Plan Workshop. Unpubl. Working Document. IUCN/ JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002 181 PHENOTYPIC AND BEHA VIOURAL CHARACTERISTICS OF WILD BUFFA LO SSC, Minneapolis, MN, USA. 121 pp. Caro, T.M. (Ed.) (1998): Behavioural Ecology and Conservation Biology. 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(1987): The demography of chance extinction. In: Viable Populations for Conservation, (Ed.: Soule, M.E.). Cambridge University Press, UK. Pp. 11-34. Groves, C.P. (1981): Systematic relationships in the Bovini (Artiodactyla, Bovidae). Zeitschriftfur Zoologische Systematik und Evolutionsforchung 19: 264-278. Hall, S.J.G. & J. Ruane ( 1 993): Livestock breeds and their conservation: A global overview. Cons. Biol. 7: 815- 825. Hedges, S. (1995): Asian Wild Cattle and Buffalo: Draft Status Report and Conservation Action Plan (Parts I and II). Unpubl. Report, IUCN Gland, Switzerland. 310 pp. Heinen, J.T. ( 1 993a): Population viability and management recommendations for wild water buffalo ( Bubalus bubalis ) in Kosi Tappu Wildlife Reserve, Nepal. Biol. Cons. <55:29-34. Heinen, J.T. (1993b): Park-people relations in Kosi Tappu Wildlife Reserve, Nepal: A socio-economic analysis. Environ. Cons. 20(10): 25-34. Heinen, J.T. & G.R. Singh (2000): A Recensus, Population Viability Assessment, and Translocation Proposal for Wild Buffalo in Nepal. Unpubl. Report, Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation, Kathmandu, Nepal. 32 pp. Heinen, J.T. & G.R. Singh {in press): A census and some management implication for wild buffalo in Nepal. Biol. Cons. Heinen, J.T. & S. Srikosamatara (1996): Status and protection of Asian wild cattle and buffalo. Cons. Biol. 10(4): 931-934. Mishra, P.N. (1981): Wild Asian Buffalo. In: Wild is Beautiful, (Ed.: Majupuria, T.C.). Craftman Press, Bangkok, Thailand, pp. 433-440. Nowak, R.M. (1999): Walker’s Mammals of the World. 6lh Edn. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, MD, USA. 1936 pp. Nowell, K. & P. Jackson ( 1 996): Wild Cats: Status Surveys and Action Plan. IUCN Publications, Gland, Switzerland. 382 pp. Oliver, W.L.R. (1993): Pigs, Peccaries and Hippos: Status Survey and Action Plan. IUCN Publications, Gland, Switzerland. 202 pp. Read, B. (1999): Bison, Buffalo and Cattle Taxon Advisory Group. Unpubl. Regional Collection Plan, American Zoo and Aquarium Association, Washington D.C., USA. 17 pp. Read, B., D. Morris, N. Loskutoff, O. Byers & S. Ellis (1995): Preparatory Document for the Bovid Conservation Assessment and Management Plan. Unpubl. Working Document. IUCN/SSC Conservation Breeding Specialist Group, USA. 57 pp. Sah, J.P. (1997): Kosi Tappu Wetlands: Nepal’s Ramsar Site. IUCN South-East Asia Regional Coordination Office, Bangkok, Thailand. 254 pp. Schaller, G.B. (1998): Wildlife of the Tibetan Steppe. 182 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002 PHENOTYPIC AND BEHAVIOURAL CHARACTERISTICS OF WILD BUFFALO University Chicago Press, Chicago, III., USA. 372 pp. Seidensticker, L. (1975): Ungulate Populations in Chitwan Valley, Nepal. Unpubl Report, Office of Zoological Research, National Zoological Park, Smithsonian Institution, Washington D.C., USA. 75 pp. Seshadri, B. (1986): India’s Wildlife and Wildlife Reserves. Sterling Publishers Private Ltd., New Delhi, India. 215 pp. Shackleton, D.M. (1997): Wild Sheep and Goats and their Relatives: Status Survey and Action Plan. IUCN Publications, Gland, Switzerland. 390 pp. Shrestha, T.K. (1981): Wildlife of Nepal. Curriculum Development Centre, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal. 480 pp. Shrestha, T.K. (1997): Mammals of Nepal with reference to those of India, Bangladesh, Bhutan and Pakistan. Bimala Shrestha, Kathmandu, Nepal. 371 pp. Sillero-Zublri, C. & D. Macdonald ( 1 997): The Ethiopian Wolf: Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan. IUCN Publications, Gland, Switzerland. 123 pp. Sinclair, A.R.E. (1977): The African Buffalo. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, III., USA. 355 pp. Srikosamatara, S. & V. Suteethorn (1994): Wildlife conservation along the Thai-Lao border. Nat. Hist. Bull. Siam Soc. 42: 3-21. Stainton, J.D.A. (1972): Forests of Nepal. John Murray and Co., London, UK. 230 pp. Suwal, R.N. (1993): Kosi Tappu Wildlife Reserve: Conservation issues and management measures. Unpubl. report to IUCN, Kathmandu, Nepal. 40 pp. Tulloch, D.G. (1970): Seasonal movements and distribution of the sexes in the water buffalo, Bubalus bubalis, in the Northern Territory. Austr J. Zoo/. 18: 399-414. Tulloch, D.G. ( 1 978): The water buffalo, Bubalus bubalis, in Australia: Grouping and home range. Austr. Wildl. Res. 5: 327-354. Tulloch, D.G. ( 1 979): The water buffalo, Bubalus bubalis , in Australia: Reproduction and parent-offspring behaviour. Austr. Wildl. Res. 6: 265-287. m JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002 183 DISTRIBUTION PATTERNS, RELATIVE ABUNDANCE AND MANAGEMENT OF MAMMALS IN INDIRA GANDHI WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, TAMIL NADU, INDIA1 M. Ananda Kumar2, Mewa Singh2, Sanjay K. Srivastava3, A. Udhayan4, H.N. Kumara2 and A.K. Sharma2 ( With six text-figures ) Key words: Western Ghats, Anaimalai hills, Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary, vegetation types, mammals, distribution patterns, niche separation, management The study reports the results from systematic sampling and 6 years of incidental encounters with wild mammals in Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary, Anaimalai hills in the Western Ghats, Tamil Nadu, India. A total of 239 plots were laid along 38 transects in different vegetation types, covering a length of 200 km. Data was collected during transect walks by direct sightings, whereas the plots were searched for the presence of signs and tracks. Gaur, sambar and muntjac occurred with a higher frequency in rainforest, while chital and pig did so in other vegetation types. Elephants moved in the dry season to the wet western ranges and back in the wet season to the dry eastern ranges. Tiger had a higher frequency in the wet forests, while that of leopard was higher in the drie~ forest types. The dry forests at lower altitudes were occupied by the common palm civet, while the forested areas of higher altitudes were largely inhabited by brown palm civet, along with the small Indian civet which occurred commonly in the open areas. Malabar giant squirrel had a relatively higher frequency in other vegetation types than in the riparian forests of the eastern ranges, which were inhabited by grizzled squirrel. The dry forests at lower altitudes were occupied by bonnet macaque and Hanuman langur, whereas the wet forests of the higher altitude were occupied by lion-tailed macaque and Nilgiri langur. The wet ranges in the Sanctuary were characterized by fragmentation of rainforest, and the dry ranges had high biotic pressure. The implications of the mammalian distribution pattern and other biotic factors for the management of these hills are discussed. Introduction In southern India, wildlife habitats include the coastal plains, the Western and the Eastern Ghats, the central plains of northern Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh, the Deccan plateau, and the central plains of Tamil Nadu. These habitats differ in altitude, rainfall, terrain, soil structure, temperature and other factors. Among these, the most biodiverse is the Western Ghats, one of the hot spots of biodiversity in the world. 'Accepted November, 2001 2Biopsychology Laboratory, University of Mysore, Mysore 570 006, Karnataka, India. ’Wildlife Institute of India, Chandrabani, Dehra Dun 248 006, Uttaranchal, India. 4lndira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary, Pollachi 642 001, Tamil Nadu, India. The Western Ghats run parallel to the west coast. Topographically, they can be divided into three zones: (a) the flat and narrow coast, (b) the rising ridge, a high rainfall area with evergreen and semi-evergreen forests, and (c) the eastern zone, with low rainfall, characterized primarily by scrub or deciduous forests. Kumar (1997) reports that of the nearly 15,000 species of flowering plants in India, 30 per cent occur in the Western Ghats, of which about 1,200 are endemic; of 158 species of fish in the Western Ghats, about 50 are endemic; of the 120 species of amphibians (total 205 in India), 90 are endemic; all of the 33 species of Uropeltids and 7 pit vipers of the Western Ghats are endemic (Inger and Dutta 1986): of about 500 species of birds, 15 are endemic (Daniels 1994). A large number of mammals, including the lion-tailed 184 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002 DISTRIBUTION PATTERNS, RELATIVE ABUNDANCE AND MANAGEMENT OF MAMMALS macaque ( Macaca silenus), Nilgiri langur (. Presbytis johnii ), Nilgiri tahr ( Hemitragus hylocrius ), Malabar civet ( Viverra megaspila ), Malabar spiny dormouse ( Plcitacanthomys l as hints ), Nilgiri marten ( Maries gw at kins i ), Brown palm civet ( Paradoxurus jerdoni), are endemic to the Western Ghats. Because of the uniqueness of this habitat, several areas in the Western Ghats have been brought under the ‘Protected Area Network’. Johnsingh (1986) reported that of the total 78,387 sq. km area of the Western Ghats, 17,613 sq. km was brought under National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries. Some of the most important protected areas in the Western Ghats include Sharavathi Hills, Kudremukh National Park, Pushpagiri Wildlife Sanctuary, Brahmagiri Wildlife Sanctuary, Silent Valley National Park, Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary, Periyar Wildlife Sanctuary and Kalakad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve. Karanth (1992) has discussed in detail the factors that caused, and continue to cause, serious deterioration of forests in the Western Ghats in Karnataka. The same factors also explain the habitat deterioration in the states of Tamil Nadu and Kerala. They include the disturbance caused by human settlements, developmental projects, collection of forest produce, and hunting. The low lying areas of the Western Ghats were clear felled for rice and plantation crops, and the middle ranges were cleared for coffee and tea plantations. These agricultural activities also brought permanent settlers who required roads, bridges, electricity, schools and, hospitals. Since the Western Ghats receive high rainfall, the region has also become important for the construction of large and medium dams for power generation and irrigation. The forest produce collected from the Western Ghats includes cane, reeds, fruits and softwood for matchwood and plywood. Since all the above factors resulted in increased human activity, these may also have increased hunting in the region. Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary (previously Anaimalai Wildlife Sanctuary) is one of the important ecoregions of the Western Ghats. Extensive research has been taken up on non- human primates in this Sanctuary (Kumar 1987, Menon and Poirier 1996, Singh et al. 1997a & b, 1998, 2000, Kumara et al. 2000a, Kumar et al. 200 1 ). The effect of rainforest fragmentation on arboreal and terrestrial mammals has been reported by Kumar et al. (1995, 1998). Davidar (1978), and Mishra and Johnsingh (1998), undertook a thorough survey on the Nilgiri tahr in the Sanctuary. The above mentioned studies concentrated on particular species of mammals. There has been no study to document the overall distribution pattern of mammals, their occurrence in specific habitats, community structure and habitat preferences in the Sanctuary. The annual wildlife censuses carried out by the Forest Department, deal only with the animals sighted. They do not provide an assessment of habitats, or other conservation and management related issues. In this context, the present study was undertaken from June 1999 to July 2000. Objectives 1. To document the distribution patterns and abundance of mammals in the various habitat types in the Sanctuary. 2. To document the presence of biotic pressures in different areas, and to assess whether these pressures have an impact on the occurrence of wild mammals. 3. To assess the effect of physical factors, including natural and man-made barriers, on the movement of large mammals. Because of methodological problems, bats and terrestrial rodents were not included in this study. Study Area Anaimalai Ecosystem and Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary: Nearly 2,000 sq. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002 185 DISTRIBUTION PATTERNS, RELATIVE ABUNDANCE AND MANAGEMENT OF MAMMALS km of Anaimalai ecosystem includes the present Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary (Tamil Nadu), Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary (Kerala), Nelliampathy Hills (Kerala), parts of Palni Hills (Tamil Nadu) and, the Chinnar and Eravikulam Wildlife Sanctuaries (Kerala). These hills occupy a unique place in the Western Ghats, since the Ghats are widest (east to west) at this point. The present Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary and National Park is located at 10° 13' 08" to 10° 33' 27" N, and 76° 49' 02" to 77° 21' 07" E. In 1976, it was declared a Sanctuary encompassing 958 sq. km. In 1989, 108 sq. km of this Sanctuary was declared a National Park, which included Karian Shola, Grasshills and Manjampatty. The entire Sanctuary lies in the Western Ghats. It includes the low lying northern and eastern plains, two plateaus, and the high hills. The altitude ranges from about 275 m above msl in the Amaravathi Range and about 340 m above msl in the Pollachi Range, to nearly 2,500 m above msl in the Valparai Range. The rainfall varies from an annual average of 50 cm in the eastern side of the Sanctuary to about 500 cm in the western plateaus and slopes. The Sanctuary receives both southwest and northeast monsoon. However, the former is predominant in the western region and the latter in the eastern region. Anaimalai Hills have a long history of forestry and related operations (Davidar 1987). Most of the area is characterized by steep hills and deep valleys. However, there are two large plateaus at Top Slip and Valparai. About 150 years back, these hills contained undisturbed and contiguous tracts of forests. The two plateau regions first came under horticulture and forestry. a. Teak Plantations in Top Slip Plateau: Because of the medium elevation (< 700 m above msl) and medium rainfall (150 cm), this plateau primarily contained moist deciduous forests dominated by bamboo and teak. Vast stretches were opened up for teak plantations (Sundararaju 1987). Only a few stretches of mixed deciduous and bamboo forest were left, which have been serving as a crucial habitat for certain animals. b. Tea Plantations in Valparai Plateau: Because of the higher elevation (> 1 ,000 m above msl) and relatively higher rainfall (>250 cm), this plateau contained rainforests and semi- evergreen forests. The region was found highly suitable for growing tea and coffee (Congreve 1938). More than 20,000 ha of these forests around the present town of Valparai were leased to private companies, clear felled and converted into tea gardens, which brought a large number of people from the plains to the hills, where they became permanent settlers (now < 200,000). c. Hydel projects: The third onslaught disturbing wildlife habitats critically is from the water harvesting schemes in this hill system. Although these hills receive high rainfall, the plains on the eastern side are very dry. It was realized that dams could be constructed at various places and the deep valleys would store an enormous amount of water for irrigation and power generation. Four water management schemes were, therefore, taken up in these hills. The Sholaiyar system includes smaller dams up hills such as Nirar, and larger dams including Sholaiyar, Parambikulam and Thunakadavu downstream. The second scheme includes the Kadamparai dam. Upper Aliyar and Lower Aliyar dams. On the eastern side, the two single dam -schemes include Tirumurthy and Amaravathi. Power generation was taken up at Sholaiyar, Kadamparai, Navamalai and Sarkarpathi. A 49 km long contour canal was built to divert the Thunakadavu-Parambikulam water from the west to drain into Tirumurthy on the east. In spite of these onslaughts on the forests, the Anaimalai Hills still retain some of the finest wildlife habitats in southern India. The hills are characterized by diverse forest types (Fig. 1 ). The lower elevation areas around Navamalai in Pollachi Range, and the areas of Amaravathi and Udumalpet ranges contain southern tropical 186 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002 77° 21' 07" DISTRIBUTION PATTERNS, RELATIVE ABUNDANCE AND MANAGEMENT OF MAMMALS JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002 187 Fig. 1: Major vegetation types in Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary DISTRIBUTION PATTERNS , RELATIVE ABUNDANCE AND MANAGEMENT OF MAMMALS thorn forests. The medium altitude ranges around Attakatti, Upper Aliyar, Kadamparai region and Top Slip region are characterized by deciduous forests. The upper ranges (>1,000 m above msl) around Valparai and even the middle elevation but high rainfall areas of Vargaliar-Panathiar region harbour rainforests. The mountain slopes (>1,800 m above msl) support typical shola forests, whereas the mountain tops are characterized by extensive stretches of grasslands, making it a typical montane habitat. Kumar et al. (1998) characterize the tropical wet evergreen forests in Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary as dominated by Cullenia-Mesua- Palaquium, Hopea-Mesua-Artocarpus and Dipterocarpus-AnacolGsa associations; tropical montane forests dominated by Gordonia- Michelia-Eugenia species; mixed dry and moist deciduous forests dominated by Tectona- Tenninalia-Dillenia-L agers tro em i a species; and thorn forests by several species of Acacia , Zizy pirns and Albizzia. This variety of habitats accounts for the diverse wildlife in the hills. The scrub and deciduous forests are home to most of the terrestrial mammals. The rainforests support a large variety of arboreal wildlife, and the peaks harbour typical montane species such as Nilgiri tahr. However, wildlife management in the Anaimalai Hills is a serious challenge. In addition to the past pressures, the present day problems include: a. The management of wildlife in fragmented forests, especially in the rainforest fragments, and areas around the 35 tribal settlements in the Sanctuary. b. The management of people: The tribes on the western side live primarily in rainforests and generally do not maintain livestock, while those settled in the dry forests on the eastern side maintain large stocks of cattle. Therefore, the grazing pressure is high on the eastern side. Similar biotic pressure is also faced from the villages outside the Sanctuary limits on the northern and eastern sides. Apart from the pressure of grazing by livestock, human pressures also visibly affect the Valparai plateau. Methods The two methods used were systematic sampling and incidental encounters. Systematic sampling was carried out by the line transect method and plot method. Line Transect Method: Transects of varying length were laid in different habitat types (Fig. 2). The length of each transect was measured using a pedometer. All transects were not straight lines, due to the mountainous terrain and presence of several water reservoirs. Table 1 provides a summary of the length of transects in different forest ranges and vegetation types. A total of 38 transects were laid, covering a length of 200.47 km. A single transect could run through more than one vegetation type. All transects were walked at least once and most of them were repeated in wet and dry seasons. While walking a transect, the season, transect number, transect length, length of each vegetation type along a transect, mammalian species encountered, number of animals of each species sighted, distance of each animal from the starting point of the transect, and altitude were recorded. The data collected through this method were used for estimating encounter rates of various mammalian species. To some extent, this estimate was influenced by differences in visibility among various vegetation types. In the text, monoculture refers to teak and eucalyptus plantations inside the Sanctuary. Plot Method: This was the second method employed in systematic sampling. Each plot was 3 m in width and 50 m in length. A plot was laid at every 500 m along the transect lines. The details of these plots are provided in Table 1. The plots were investigated only once, when information was recorded on season, vegetation type, signs of mammalian species (sightings, 188 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002 76° 49' 02" DISTRIBUTION PATTERNS, RELATIVE ABUNDANCE AND MANAGEMENT OF MAMMALS JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002 189 Fig. 2: Locations of line transects during the survey in Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary (see Appendix-11 for names of places and distance of transects) DISTRIBUTION PATTERNS RELATIVE ABUNDANCE AND MANAGEMENT OF MAMMALS Table 1 DISTANCE COVERED (M) IN LINE TRANSECTS AND NUMBER OF PLOTS IN VARIOUS RANGES AND FOREST TYPES Range Rainforest Deciduous Riparian Scrub Grassland Monoculture Total Valparai 27.900 (27) 9,650(13) 3,900 (7) 1,750(4) 10,800 (15) 1,700 (4) 55.700(70) Manampalli 27.434 (29) 11,176(8) 2,400 (3) 330(1) - 1,200(1) 42,540 (42) Ulandy 8,467 (9) 7,490(13) - 1,700(1) - 4,218 (7) 21,875 (30) Pollachi 1,640(1) 3.260(7) 2,000 (2) 4,000 (4) - - 10,900(14) Udumalpet 2,930 (4) 2,903 (5) 14,413 (13) 29,522 (43) 4,532 842 (2) 55,142 (67) Amaravathi - - 5,562 (7) 8,750 (9) - - 14,312(16) Total 68,371 (70) 34,479 (46) 28,275 (32) 46.052 (62) 15,332 (15) 7,960(14) 2,00,469 (239) Values in parentheses indicate number of plots fresh signs of tracks, droppings, scrapes, feeding, digging, kills), altitude, dung deposits by livestock, woodcutting, poaching (snares, traps and encounters with poachers) and movement of people. Grazing was considered moderate if less than 60% plots per transect had cattle dung deposits, and severe if more than 60% had the same. Woodcutting was also classified as rare or common, with similar percentage of plots per transect with stumps of cut wood. Average number of poaching signs per kilometre was calculated. The data collected through this method was used to record the absence or presence of wild mammals, as well as to assess the effect of biotic factors on occurrence of wild mammals. Incidental Encounters (day and night): A systematic record has been kept on all mammalian species sighted in different parts of the Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary since July 1994. We also made several night trips by jeep and on foot in a few accessible places, primarily in the deciduous and rainforest. Such data have been used to indicate the presence and relative encounter rates, especially of some small mammals. Regular ad libitum notes on physical barriers, and movement of people in the forest were also maintained from the information gathered from locals and forest staff. The data on the distribution of the Nilgiri tahr was collected through ad libitum sampling, since transect or plot method did not provide reliable information for this species. Data analysis was carried out by applying the chi-square test for k proportions (Gibbons 1971). Results Large Herbivorous Mammals Occurrence in different vegetation types’. Tables 2 and 3 present the data on encounter rates in transects and occurrence of signs in plots, respectively, on large herbivorous mammals in different vegetation types. The significance of difference for vegetation types was calculated through the chi-square test for k proportions for each species separately (Gibbons 1971). Except for muntjac ( Muntiacus muntjak ), the encounter rates of all animals differed significantly among various vegetation types (Table 2). In plots too, except for sambar (Cervus unicolor ), and wild pig ( Sus scrofa ), the percent of occurrence of signs differed significantly among different vegetation types (Table 3). The direct sighting data reveal that these mammalian species occur with a higher frequency in relatively drier forests including monoculture. On the other hand, the 190 JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 99(2), AUG. 2002 DISTRIBUTION PATTERNS, RELATIVE ABUNDANCE AND MANAGEMENT OF MAMMALS plot data shows more signs of these species in the rainforest, riparian forest and monoculture. Chital (Axis axis ) was found to occur primarily in the scrub forest, with the exception of a small population in a deciduous forest at Top Slip. Contingency coefficient was also calculated for gaur ( Bos gaums), sambar, muntjac, chital and wild pig for their occurrence in rainforest and other vegetation types (combined) for the data presented in Table 3. A significant chi-square fc2 =20.99; df=4; p=0.01) revealed that, whereas gaur, sambar and muntjac had a higher frequency in rainforest, chital and wild pig had a higher frequency in other vegetation types. Occurrence at different altitudes'. Tables 4 and 5 present data on large herbivorous mammals at different altitudes. Except for muntjac, the encounter rates differed significantly in relation to altitude (Table 4), whereas sambar, chital and wild pig were sighted with a higher frequency at <500 m, elephant ( Elephas maximus) and gaur were encountered more frequently at 500-1,500 m. However, the plot data (Table 5) revealed no significant Table 2 NUMBER OF LARGE HERBIVOROUS MAMMALS ENCOUNTERED IN DIFFERENT VEGETATION TYPES IN INDIRA GANDHI WILDLIFE SANCTUARY Species Rainforest Deciduous Riparian Scrub Grassland Monoculture Chi-square P Elephant 11 (0.16) 10(0.29) 8(0.28) 1 (0.02) - 1 (0.13) 17.5 .01 Gaur 23 (0.34) 16(0.46) 2(0.04) 12(0.26) 17(1.11) 13(1.63) 99.5 .01 Sambar 5 (0.07) 11 (0.32) 6(0.10) 25 (0.54) - - 42.9 .01 Muntjac 9(0.13) 5 (0.15) 2(0.04) 1 (0.02) - 1 (0.13) 7.1 NS Chital - - - 52 ((1.13) - - 235.4 .01 Wild pig - - 8(0.14) 29(0.62) - - 91.0 .01 Total distance 68.37 34.48 28.28 46.05 15.33 7.96 of transects (km) Animal/km 0.70 1.22 0.92 2.61 1.1 1.88 Elephant ( Elephas maximus ); Gaur ( Bos gaurus)\ Sambar (Cervus unicolor)', Muntjac ( Mimtiacus muntjak ); Chital (Axis axis). Wild pig ( Sits scrofa). Values in parentheses indicate encounter rate per kilometre Table 3 OCCURRENCE OF SIGNS OF LARGE HERBIVOROUS MAMMALS IN PLOTS IN DIFFERENT VEGETATION TYPES IN INDIRA GANDHI WILDLIFE SANCTUARY Species Rainforest Deciduous Riparian Scrub Grassland Monoculture Chi-square P Elephant 21 (30.0) 22 (47.8) 19(59.4) 26(41.9) 4(26.6) 8(57.1) 11.5 .05 Gaur 33 (47.1) 12(26.1) 6(18.7) 4(6.4) 6(40 0) 7 (50.0) 32.5 .01 Sambar 39 (55.7) 17(36.9) 14(43.7) 23 (37.1) 1 (6.6) 5 (35.7) 6.5 NS Muntjac 16(22.8) 8(17.4) 5 (15.6) 2(3.2) - 2(14.3) 13.6 .05 Chital - 2(4.3) 3 (9.4) 10(16.1) - 1(7 I) 15.7 .01 Wild pig 5(7.1) 3(6.5) 3 (9.4) 9(14.5) - 3(21.4) 6.5 NS Number of Plots 70 46 32 62 15 14 Signs/plot 1.63 1.39 1.56 1.19 0.73 1.86 Values in parentheses indicate occurrence of signs in per cent plots JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002 191 DISTRIBUTION PATTERNS , RELATIVE ABUNDANCE AND MANAGEMENT OF MAMMALS Table 4 NUMBER OF LARGE HERBIVOROUS MAMMALS ENCOUNTERED AT DIFFERENT ALTITUDES (M) IN INDIRA GANDHI WILDLIFE SANCTUARY Species <500 501-1000 1001-1500 >1500 Chi-square P Elephant 3 (0.09) 24 (0.22) 4(0.10) - 9.1 .05 Gaur - 37 (0.34) 23 (0.55) 17(0.28) 49.9 .01 Sambar 26 (0.80) 8 (0.07) 10(0.24) - 83.8 .01 Muntjac 1 (0.03) 13 (0.12) 2(0.05) - 5.5 NS Chital 51 (1.57) - - - 357.9 .01 Wild pig 33 (1.02) 4 (0.04) - - 180.4 .01 Total distance of Transects (km) 32.51 108.22 41.51 1 8.24 Animals/km 3.51 0.79 0.94 0.93 Values in parentheses indicate encounter rate per kilometre Table 5 OCCURRENCE OF SIGNS OF LARGE HERBIVOROUS MAMMALS IN PLOTS AT DIFFERENT ALTITUDES (M) IN INDIRA GANDHI WILDLIFE SANCTUARY Species <500 501-1000 1001 -1500 >1500 Chi-square P Elephant 17(45.9) 49 (44.5) 21 (36.8) 13 (37.1) 1.5 NS Gaur 5(13.5) 38 (34.5) 11 (19.3) 14(40.0) 10.7 .05 Sambar 20 (54.1) 46 (41.8) 24 (42.1) 9 (25.7) 6.0 NS Muntjac 3(8.1) 15(13.6) 12 (21.0) 3(8.6) 4.3 NS Chital 13(35.1) 3(2.7) - - 57.3 0.1 Wild pig 6(16.2) 15 (13.6) 2(3.5) - 10.1 .05 Number of Plots 37 110 57 35 Signs/plot 1.73 1.51 1.23 1.11 Values in parentheses indicate occurrence of signs in per cent plots difference in the distribution of elephant, sambar and muntjac with altitude. Chital and gaur occupied lower (<500 m) and higher (500- 1,500 m) ranges respectively. Whereas the encounter data revealed significantly higher overall frequency of these species at <500 m (Table 4), this difference was not significant in the plots data (Table 5). Large Carnivorous Mammals Occurrence in different vegetation types and at different altitudes'. Tables 6 and 7 present the data collected through plot method on large carnivorous mammals in relation to vegetation types and altitude respectively. Significant differences in the occurrence in relation to vegetation type and altitude were found only for bear ( Melursus ursinus) and leopard (Panthera pardus ). Bear occurred with a higher frequency in deciduous, riparian, scrub and monoculture forests, as against rainforest and grasslands (Table 6). The occurrence of leopard was greater in riparian, scrub and grassland and monoculture regions as compared to rainforest and deciduous forest. The overall occurrence of large carnivores was greater in scrub and monoculture areas. Whereas bear had a higher frequency at >500 m (Table 7), the leopard was abundant at <1,000 m. Contingency coefficient was also calculated for occurrence of leopard and tiger {Panthera tigris) in rainforest and other vegetation types (combined) for the data in Table 6. A significant chi-square (x2 ^4.97; df=l; pK).05) revealed that leopard and tiger occurred with higher 192 JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 99(2). AUG. 2002 DISTRIBUTION PATTERNS . RELATIVE ABUNDANCE AND MANAGEMENT OF MAMMALS Table 6 OCCURRENCE OF SIGNS OF LARGE CARNIVOROUS MAMMALS IN PLOTS IN DIFFERENT VEGETATION TYPES IN INDIRA GANDHI WILDLIFE SANCTUARY Species Rainforest Deciduous Riparian Scrub Grassland Monoculture Chi-square P Dhole 3(4.3) - 4(6.4) 6.4 NS Bear 4(5.7) 12(26.1) 5(15.6) 13(21.0) - 3(21.4) 13.6 .05 Leopard 4(5.7) 1(2.2) 3(9.4) 7(11.3) 2(13.3) 5(35.7) 16.1 .01 Tiger 6(8.6) 2(4.3) 1(3.1) 1(7.1) 7.1 NS Jackal - - 1(1.6) 2.9 NS Number of Plots 70 46 32 62 15 14 Signs/plot 0.24 0.33 0.28 0.40 0.13 0.64 Dhole (Cuon alpinus)\ Bear ( Melursus ursinus ), Leopard ( Panthera pardus)\ Tiger ( Pantherci tigris)\ jackal (Canis aureus) Values in parentheses indicate occurrence of signs in per cent plots Table 7 OCCURRENCE OF SIGNS OF LARGE CARNIVOROUS MAMMALS IN PLOTS AT DIFFERENT ALTITUDES (M) IN INDIRA GANDHI WILDLIFE SANCTUARY Species <500 501-1000 1001-1500 >1500 Chi-square P Dhole 2 (5.4)* 4(3.6) ! (2.9) 2.7 NS Bear 2(5.4) 27 (24.5) 8(14.0) - 16.3 .01 Leopard 7(18.9) 12 (10.9) 1(1.7) 2(5.7) 8.9 .05 Tiger 1 (2.7) 6(5.4) 1(1.7) 2(5.7) 1.7 NS Jackal - 1 (0.9) 1.2 NS Number of Plots 37 110 57 35 Signs/plot 0.32 0.45 0.18 0.14 Values in parentheses indicate occurrence of signs in per cent plots frequencies in other vegetation types and rainforest, respectively. Small Mammals Occurrence in different vegetation types : Tables 8 and 9 present the data on the occurrence of small mammals in different vegetation types. Mongoose and hare were encountered more in the drier forests than in the rainforest (Table 8). Whereas pangolin ( Manis crass icaudata) and porcupine ( Hystrix indica ) were evenly distributed in all vegetation types (Table 9), mouse deer ( Tragulus meminna) occurred with a higher frequency in rainforest and monoculture, and the small Indian civet ( Viverricula indica ) and brown palm civet were abundant in the rainforest and grassland. A contingency coefficient analysis was applied to the occurrence of small mammals in rainforest and other vegetation types (combined) for the data in Table 9. A significant chi-square (x2=8.65; df=3; p=0.05) revealed that mouse deer and civet occurred with a higher frequency in rainforest, while pangolin and porcupine had a higher frequency in other vegetation types. Occurrence at different altitudes: Tables 10 and 1 1 present the data on the occurrence of small mammals at different altitudes. Only the hare had a significantly higher frequency at <1,000 m as against >1,000 m (Table 10). However, the data from plots gave non- significant difference in the occurrence of mouse JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002 193 DISTRIBUTION PATTERNS, RELATIVE ABUNDANCE AND MANAGEMENT OF MAMMALS Table 8 NUMBER OF SMALL MAMMALS ENCOUNTERED IN DIFFERENT VEGETATION TYPES IN INDIRA GANDHI WILDLIFE SANCTUARY Species Rainforest Deciduous Riparian Scrub Grassland Monoculture Chi-square P Mouse deer 1 (0.01) 1 (0.02) - - - 1 (0.13) 8.4 NS Mongoose - - - 2 (0.04) - 1 (0.13) 11.4 .05 Hare - 2 (0.06) - 5(0.11) - - 12.3 .05 Total distance 68.37 34.48 28.28 46.05 15.33 7.96 of trail sects (km) Animal/km 0.01 0.09 0.15 0.25 Values in parentheses indicate encounter rate per kilometre Table 9 OCCURRENCE OF SIGNS OF SMALL MAMMALS IN PLOTS IN DIFFERENT VEGETATION TYPES IN INDIRA GANDHI WILDLIFE SANCTUARY Species Rainforest Deciduous Riparian Scrub Grassland Monoculture Chi-square P Mouse deer 8(11.4) 2 (4.3) - - - 1(7.1) 12.9 .05 Civet 11 (15.7) 3(6.5) 3 (9.4) 3(4.8) 5 (33.3) - 14.9 .05 Pangolin 2(2.8) 4(8.7) - - - 1 (7.1) 9.5 NS Porcupine 3(4.3) 4(8.7) 3 (9.4) 7(11.3) - 1(7.1) 3.8 NS Number of Plots 70 46 32 62 15 14 Signs/plot 0.34 0.28 0.19 0.16 0.33 0.21 Values in parentheses indicate occurrence of signs in per cent plots deer, civet, pangolin and porcupine at different < altitudes (Table 11). < ( Arboreal Mammals t Occurrence in different vegetation types ( and at different altitudes'. Tables 12 and 13 * present the data on the encounter rates of arboreal < mammals in different vegetation types and t altitudes. Significant differences were observed 1 in the occurrence of all arboreal species 1 inhabiting different vegetation types (Table 12). t Malabar giant squirrel ( Ratufa indica ) had a higher frequency in rainforest, deciduous forest I and monoculture; grizzled squirrel ( Ratufa \ macrouru ) had a higher frequency in riparian forest; bonnet macaques ( Macaca radiata) \ occurred only in deciduous and riparian forests; t lion-tailed macaques had a higher frequency in ( the rainforest; Nilgiri langur in the rainforest and \ deciduous forest; and Hanuman langur ( Presbytis entellus) in riparian forest. Significant differences were observed for all arboreal mammals in their occurrence at different altitudes (Table 13). Whereas Malabar giant squirrel was encountered with a higher frequency at altitudes of >500 m, the grizzled squirrel was encountered at <500 m only. Bonnet macaque and Hanuman langur occurred primarily at <500 m, whereas lion-tailed macaque and Nilgiri langur occurred at >500 m. Distribution of mammals in wet and dry ranges In Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary, the western ranges receive higher rainfall (>250 cm) than the eastern ranges (<75 cm). The distribution pattern of a few important prey and predator species was analyzed by combining the 194 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 99(2). AUG. 2002 DISTRIBUTION PATTERNS , RELATIVE ABUNDANCE AND MANAGEMENT OF MAMMALS data from plots in different ranges. Whereas gaur and mouse deer had a significantly higher frequency in the wetter ranges, the dry ranges had a higher frequency of chital (Table 14). Although tiger occurred with a higher frequency in the wet ranges, and leopard and dhole ( Cuon alpinus) occurred with a higher frequency in the dry ranges, the difference in their distribution failed to reach the statistical significance (Table 14). Table 10 NUMBER OF SMALL MAMMALS ENCOUNTERED AT DIFFERENT ALTITUDES (M) IN INDIRA GANDHI WILDLIFE SANCTUARY Species <500 501-1000 1001-1500 >1500 Chi-square P Mouse deer - 3 (0.03) - - 2.6 NS Mongoose 2(0.06) 1 (0.01) - - 5.9 NS Hare 4(0.12) 3 (0.03) - - 9.9 .05 Total distance of Transects (m) 32,505 1,08,217 41.511 18,236 Animal/km 0.18 0.06 - - Values in parentheses indicate encounter rate per kilometre Table 1 1 OCCURRENCE OF SIGNS OF SMALL MAMMALS IN PLOTS AT DIFFERENT ALTITUDES (M) IN INDIRA GANDHI WILDLIFE SANCTUARY Species <500 501-1000 1001-1500 >1500 Chi-square P Mouse deer - 7(6.4) 3(5.3) 1 (2.9) 2.9 NS Civet 2(5.4) 10(9.1) 6(10.5) 7(20.0) 4.6 NS Pangolin 1 (2.7) 3 (2.7) 3(5.3) - 2.2 NS Porcupine 6(16.2) 8(7.3) 3(5.3) 1 (2.3) 5.5 NS Number of Plots 37 110 57 35 Signs/plot 0.24 0.25 0.26 0.26 Values in parentheses indicate occurrence of signs in per cent plots Table 1 2 NUMBER OF ARBOREAL MAMMALS ENCOUNTERED IN DIFFERENT VEGETATION TYPES IN INDIRA GANDHI WILDLIFE SANCTUARY Species Rainforest Deciduous Riparian Scrub Grassland Monoculture Chi-square P Giant squirrel 56 (0.82) 21 (0.61) 8(0.14) - 4(0.50) 94.9 .01 Grizzled squirrel - - 6(0.11) - - 37.7 .01 Bonnet macaque 13(0.19) 136 (3.94) 69 (2.44) 25 (0.54) - 1657.6 .01 Lion-tailed macaque 93 (1.36) - - - - 335.2 .01 Nilgiri langur 345 (5.05) 147 (4.26) - - 17(2.14) 284.4 .01 Hanuman langur - 19(0.55) 97(3.43) 30 (0.65) - 1295.7 .01 Total distance of 68.37 34.48 28.28 46.05 15.33 7.96 transects (km) Animal/km 7.41 9.37 6.37 1.19 2.64 Giant squirrel ( Ratufa indica)\ Grizzled squirrel ( Ratufa macroura)] Bonnet macaque ( Macaca rcidiata ); Lion-tailed macaque (M. silenus),'Ni\g\r\ langur (Presbytis jolmii)\ Hanuman langur (P. entellus) Values in parentheses indicate encounter rate per kilometre JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2). AUG. 2002 195 DISTRIBUTION PATTERNS, RELATIVE ABUNDANCE AND MANAGEMENT OF MAMMALS Table 13 NUMBER OF ARBOREAL MAMMALS ENCOUNTERED AT DIFFERENT ALTITUDES (M) IN INDIRA GANDHI WILDLIFE SANCTUARY Species <500 501-1000 1001-1500 >1500 Chi-square P Giant squirrel - 47 (0.43) 32 (0.77) 3 (0.05) 50.1 .01 Grizzled squirrel 6(0.18) - - - 32.3 .01 Bonnet macaque 123 (3.78) 94 (0.87) 26 (0.62) - 1016.2 .01 Lion-tailed macaque - 87 (0.80) 6(0.14) - 110.5 .01 Nilgiri langur - 358 (3.31) 132 (3.18) 19(1.04) 82.8 .01 Hanuman langur 127(3.91) 19(0.18) - - 2048.4 .01 Total distance of Transects (km) 32.51 108.22 41.51 18.24 Animal/km 7.87 5.59 4.72 1.21 Values in parentheses indicate encounter rate per kilometre An analysis was specifically attempted for the occurrence of elephants in the wet and dry ranges during wet (June-November) and dry (December-May) periods (Table 15). The data clearly indicated that the elephants occurred with a higher frequency in the wetter ranges of the west during the dry season and in the drier ranges of the east during the wet season. The reliability of the data was indicated by the overall Table 14 OCCURRENCE OF SIGNS OF MAMMALIAN SPECIES IN PLOTS IN WET AND DRY RANGES OF INDIRA GANDHI WILDLIFE SANCTUARY Species Wet ranges Dry ranges Chi-square P Prey species Gaur 60 (42.2) 8 (8.2) 32.7 .01 Sambar 64 (45.1) 35 (36.1) 1.9 NS Muntjak 22(15.5) 11 (11.3) 0.8 NS Mouse deer 10(5.6) 1(1.0) 4.7 .05 Chital 3(2.1) 13 (13.4) 11.8 .01 Pig 10(7.0) 13(13.4) 2.7 NS Porcupine 8(5.6) 10(10.3) 1.8 NS Signs/plot 177 (1.25) 91 (0.94) Predators Tiger 8(5.6) 2(2.1) 1.8 NS Leopard 10(7.0) 12(12.4) 1.9 NS Dhole 2(1.4) 5(5.1) 2.8 NS Signs/plot 20 (0.14) 19(0.19) Number of 142 97 Plots Values in parentheses indicate occurrence of signs in per cent plots occurrence of elephants in 4 1 .5 and 42.8 % plots in wet and dry season respectively. Incidental encounters of some mammalian species Small mammals and Nilgiri tahr. The data on our long term but incidental recordings of small mammals and Nilgiri tahr obtained through night drives and walks of known distance is presented in Table 16. The sighting frequency was converted to encounters per kilometre. Many small mammals were found only in some characteristic habitat types in the Sanctuary, but the data table in the end presents the overall encounter rates for the entire Sanctuary. Slender loris {Loris tardigradus) was seen only in the drier regions of the Sanctuary, with an overall encounter rate of 0.04 animals/ km. Flying squirrel {Petaurista petaurista) and Table 15 OCCURRENCE OF SIGNS OF ELEPHANTS IN PLOTS IN WET AND DRY RANGES ACROSS SEASONS IN INDIRA GANDHI WILDLIFE SANCTUARY Ranges Wet season Dry season Chi-square P Wet 118(35.6) 24 (58,3) 4.3 .05 Dry 58 (53.4) 39 (33.3) 3.8 .05 Overall 176 (41.5) 63 (42.8) .003 NS Values in parentheses indicate occurrence of signs in per cent plots 196 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002 Table 16 DISTRIBUTION PATTERNS , RELATIVE ABUNDANCE AND MANAGEMENT OF MAMMALS 00 < UJ < uj PZ UJ U- u. Q UJ Cti f— 1 •>, S cS 2 < d h * z S 5 n_ 00 O s UJ PJ d uj Q f— 1 i—3 §5 o u 2 w oo i DC Q O < S < 2 C/0 UJ 2 O 00 Ou o CC W CD 2 D Z i> — O "C C 4> rt c/5 4/ r- > E o ^ P J3 E ^ oo o P E is o 15 > (J a o rz; Co +— » 2 •— c/5 *S 'o 6 = “ «S .£ CQ Cl. O -a p re ro oh ■re- 0 O O z E 1 1 1 • 1 1 0 1 O 4J C/l ro Zj L< IT) O ro r- ro O 03 t-4 cd P < i2 C3 i— r~ cd > Cd z I cd C 03 u o U QJ cd a 03 c d TD cd cd "O cd & u >> cd , E- > & 75 P i Cl. ■+- V ■ a *“< re re ~ E re ^ 15 g .£■ d < p • 55 cB « S B .& 3 a.b g § a-o | fi? dS/<£ .P re 2 ? re -P re l. o re o 5 t>o "re '3 CL ~3 o §• 3 G P (N •n iri -O- CN (N O O r- 01) O O 0 O . 1 1 1 O m 3 O « U re Af- C 'Ll P Cj -- ~3 L- 5; 1° 3 z I • " ? > C/5 C~ 3 ^0 4> > 3 C oo 0^ re -a ao cj L- r- 1— -3 OO cr s <45 OO r^> U- oa v ~3 ~3 3 g .& c§ ~3 ZL *— I 3 « O -re > 03 ^ Q_ o £ kU cq JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002 197 DISTRIBUTION PATTERNS, RELATIVE ABUNDANCE AND MANAGEMENT OF MAMMALS Table 17 OCCURRENCE OF SIGNS OF BIOTIC FACTORS IN TRANSECTS IN DIFFERENT RANGES IN INDIRA GANDHI WILDLIFE SANCTUARY Range No. of transects Grazing Woodcutting Moderate Severe Rare Common Valparai 9 1(14.3) 1(14.3) 5(55.5) 1(11.1) Manampalli 6 2(33.3) 0 4(66.7) 1(16.7) Ulandy 7 0 0 1(14.3) 0 Pollachi 3 I (33.3) 2 (66.7) 2(66.7) 0 Udumalpet 9 2 (22.2) 7(77.8) 3(33.3) I (H.l) Amaravathi 3 0 3(100) 0 2(66.7) Chi-square 4.29 23.35 8.95 7.63 P NS .01 NS NS Values in parentheses indicate occurrence of signs in percent plots mouse deer were met with encounter rates of 0. 1 2 and 0.03 animals/km respectively, with a considerably higher rate in the wetter forests. ; Nilgiri marten and stripenecked mongoose ] (Herpestes vittico/lis) (0.003 and 0.01 animals/ 1 km respectively) were also found only in the wet ] regions. The distribution of different species of 1 civets showed strong ecological correlates. In the lower altitude and relatively drier forests, < common palm civet and small Indian civet were « sympatric, the former being more common I (Fig. 3). In the higher altitude and wetter regions, brown palm civet and small Indian civet were sympatric. The brown palm civet was more < common in the forested regions, whereas the small Indian civet preferred relatively open areas such as tea estates. Fig. 4 presents the information on the 1 distribution of Nilgiri tahr in the Sanctuary i (Appendix-Ill). The Nilgiri tahr was found I mainly in the rocky terrain and hilltops from 500 m (3 HP on Aliyar-Valparai Road) to about i 2,500 m (Akkamalai ridge) and occurred in both : wet and dry regions. The presence of tahr could i be classified into eight distinct populations in i the Sanctuary. Populations I (8 animals), III (14 i animals) and IV (indirect evidence of presence) l appeared to be isolated in the Sanctuary, but it is > possible that they are continuous with 1 populations in Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary j in Kerala. These areas need further exploration. Populations VI (71 animals sighted at one time) and VIII (2 animals) were again isolated populations. Population VI at Pachchapalmalai appeared to be a biologically self-sustaining population, whereas Population VIII probably had only a few animals. Two populations, i.e. Population II (39 animals) and Population V (32 animals) were distributed over relatively large areas with probably low densities. A relatively high density (191 animals sighted at one time) was observed in Population VII (211 animals) in the Akkamalai-Grasshills region, which is continuous with Eravikulam Wildlife Sanctuary in Kerala, making this population contiguous with that in Kerala. Mammals sighted in tea gardens'. Many private tea gardens in the Valparai plateau still retain fragments of rainforest (Fig. 1) and also have areas under eucalyptus plantations. Although line transects and plots were not laid in these forests fragments during the present study all incidental encounters with wild mammals in the private estates and forests were recorded. The number of encounters with wild mammals was as follows: elephant herds (22), gaur herds (63), sambar (88), muntjac (176), mouse deer ( 1 6), wild pig (3), porcupine (3), bear (13), tiger (1), leopard (14), dhole packs (27), jackal (Cams aureus) (4), leopard cat ( Felis 198 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY 99(2). AUG. 2002 DISTRIBUTION PATTERNS, RELATIVE ABUNDANCE AND MANAGEMENT OF MAMMALS 76° 56' 8" 77° 3' 14" 29' 3" 19' 2" Fig. 3: Distribution of civets in Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary and private tea gardens around Aliyar-Valparai Road JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002 199 76° 49' 02" DISTRIBUTION PATTERNS RELATIVE ABUNDANCE AND MANAGEMENT OF MAMMALS 200 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002 Fig. 4: Populations of Nilgiri Tahr in Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary (see Appendix-Ill for names of places) DISTRIBUTION PATTERNS, RELATIVE ABUNDANCE AND MANAGEMENT OF MAMMALS bengalensis) (3), unidentified cat (1), stripe- necked mongoose (23), brown palm civet (8) and small Indian civet (33). In addition, several fragments harbour resident populations of lion- tailed macaque. Nilgiri langur, Malabar giant squirrel and flying squirrels ( Petaurista sp). The small and arboreal mammals are resident in the forest fragments used by the larger terrestrial animals to move between Manampalli/ Shekalmudi and Akkamalai/lyerpadi forests. Biotic factors and barriers for dispersal Biotic pressures on the Sanctuary. Table 17 presents data on grazing by the livestock and woodcutting by people in the Sanctuary. Statistically significant differences were observed for severe grazing in various forest ranges. High grazing pressure was observed in the drier ranges including Pollachi, Udumalpet and Amaravathi. Grazing by the livestock was not observed in Ulandy, and the pressure was not severe in Valparai and Manampalli ranges. Although woodcutting was more common in Amaravathi, the chi-square test did not show any significant difference among the various forest ranges. Fig. 5 presents the data on signs of poaching attempts per kilometre in different ranges. More snares and traps were found in Ulandy and Pollachi ranges as compared to other ranges. No such signs were found in Amaravathi range. Traps of different sizes made out of wooden stumps and bamboo were found during the study. Snares made out of plastic wires and wire mesh were also found. Most of these traps were placed in forest fringes along estates or village boundaries. The traps were also found near water holes and in the regularly used animal tracks. Over the years we observed occasional stealing of kills made by dhole and leopard in some tea estates bordering forest areas. Analysis was also carried out for the occurrence of all mammalian species in per cent plots with relation to biotic factors. With the exception of gaur, the distribution of no other species was found to be in any way influenced by the biotic factors, the details of these analyses are not presented here. Gaur was found to occur in 41.3, 8.0 and 0 percent plots, in plots with no grazing, moderate grazing and severe grazing, respectively. A chi-square analysis (x2=39.5; df=2; p=0.01) revealed the above frequencies of occurrence of gaur in plots to differ significantly. Barriers for dispersal of mammals'. The barriers (Fig. 6) for dispersal of mammals in Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary were both natural and man-made. The natural barriers were hills with steep slopes. Man-made barriers included tea estates, hydel projects, human settlements and various roads. The most prominent barrier was the road between Aliyar and Valparai. Not only is the traffic heavy on this road, but the terrain from Aliyar up to Iyerpadi forest makes the movement of animals between west and east difficult. South of Iyerpadi forest, the Valparai plateau area was cultivated for tea. The western and eastern sides of this road have become two separate regions with a small corridor between them at Iyerpadi and Andiparai forests. Aliyar, Upper Aliyar and Kadamparai system of reservoirs further separate the eastern and western ranges. In the eastern parts of the Sanctuary, a large number of tribal settlements with domestic cattle were an obstruction to the free movement of mammals. As may be seen in Fig. 6, the tribal settlements in the eastern region were not only more numerous than in the western region, they were also clustered, most of them with their livestock were concentrated in the drier parts of the Sanctuary. Although the average number of households per settlement (about 23) was the same in the wet and the dry regions, the livestock averaged 3.9 animals per household in the dry region against 0.3 animals in the wet region. In addition, there were several colonies for the staff of the Tamil Nadu Electricity Board. The concentration of these colonies, movement of personnel, vehicles, and cattle was primarily in JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002 201 DISTRIBUTION PATTERNS, RELATIVE ABUNDANCE AND MANAGEMENT OF MAMMALS RANGES (VAL - Valparai, MAN - Manampalli, ULA - Ulandy, POL - Pollachi, UDU - Udumalpet, AMA - Amaravathi) Fig. 5: Poaching signs per kilometre in different ranges the drier regions at Attakatti, Upper Aliyar, Navamalai, and Kadamparai. Such movement is much less at Manampalli Power House in the wetter region. Due to the presence of steep hills and relatively dry scrub forests, the availability of forage and space for movement for wild animals was restricted to a few narrow valleys and streambeds. Most of these areas were also utilized by locals and their livestock, creating human-animal conflicts. In the western region, the southern forests of Valparai range were totally cut off from the northern forests of Manampalli and Ulandy ranges due to tea gardens in the Valparai plateau. Sholaiyar and Parambikulam reservoirs have cut off the adjoining forest areas. Discussion Methodological issues In the present study, line transect method based on direct sightings, and plot method based on indirect evidence, were used to complement each other. The results obtained through these two methods reflect upon the relative efficacy of these methods for one time survey of mammalian species. As far as vegetation types and distribution of mammals was concerned, the two methods brought out two different distribution patterns. On the basis of direct sightings, large herbivorous mammals appeared to have a higher frequency in drier forests. However, the plot method indicated higher occurrence, except for elephant and wild pig, of these species in rainforests. Likewise, the encounter rates of these species were higher at lower altitudes (with dry and open forests), but the indirect evidence from plot method showed an even distribution at different altitudes. It is, therefore, very clear that visibility, determined by the nature of vegetation, is a limiting factor in the direct sighting method. Direct sightings have proved to be efficient in determining abundance and density of wild animals, but perhaps only when one repeatedly walks on transects. We propose that for a quick 202 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002 DISTRIBUTION PATTERNS, RELATIVE ABUNDANCE AND MANAGEMENT OF MAMMALS appraisal of mammalian distribution and relative abundance in a single survey, the plot method is more useful. Habitat types, mammalian distribution and niche separation The 958 sq. km area of Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary is characterized by a variety of habitat types. A unique feature of the Sanctuary is the presence of the Western Ghats ridges and plateaus receiving heavy monsoon, and the eastern slopes and plains in the rain shadow. These rainfall patterns have led to the growth of forests that include scrub jungles, deciduous forests, rainforests, shola and grasslands. These habitat types in turn support a variety of wild mammalian species that inhabit all or most habitat types, or are typical only to some habitat types. Some of the large herbivorous mammals such as elephant, gaur and sambar, that are more or less generalized feeders, occur in almost all habitats. Elephant, the most generalized feeder, even moves from wet ranges during the dry season to dry ranges during the wet season. On the other hand, typical niches such as scrub jungles of plains and rocky faces of mountains are occupied by chital and Nilgiri tahr respectively. The Nilgiri tahr populations described in this paper are similar to those described earlier (Mishra and Johnsingh 1998). Similar ecological separation in closely related species can be seen in small mammals too. The common palm civet inhabiting dry forests of the lower altitudes is replaced by the brown palm civet in the wetter forests at higher altitudes. The small Indian civet also occurs at higher altitude, but is usually found in open areas such as tea gardens, and hence is separated from the forest dwelling brown palm civet. The most remarkable case of niche separation was observed in arboreal mammals. The Malabar giant squirrel, occurring at a high frequency in many habitat types, is seen at a significantly lower frequency in the riparian forest at <1,000 m. The riparian forests in the eastern part of the Sanctuary are occupied by the grizzled squirrel. In the rainforests at >1,000 m, lion-tailed macaque and Nilgiri langur are sympatric, but Nilgiri langur also inhabits moist deciduous forests. In the dry forests at lower altitudes, the riparian forest is primarily occupied by the Hanuman langur, while deciduous and scrub forests are inhabited by the bonnet macaque. Though not as clear cut as in other taxa, a tendency towards niche separation may also be observed in large carnivores. Tiger and gaur is more abundant in the western regions, whereas leopard, dhole and chital are more abundant in the eastern ranges. A higher frequency of most terrestrial mammals was observed in ‘monoculture’ as compared to other habitat types. This may be due to the fact that animals use the patches of teak plantations to move between different habitat types. Biotic factors Although there are biotic pressures in the form of grazing, woodcutting and poaching, these factors did not appear to influence the distribution and relative abundance of most wild mammals. However, grazing by the livestock appears to have significantly affected the occurrence of gaur. The present data, and also our observations of several years, show that gaur is almost absent from the areas grazed by livestock. In the entire eastern parts of the Sanctuary, gaur occurs only on some steep slopes or in some valleys, which are not grazed upon by the livestock. This pattern can be seen in the Navamalai-Contour Canal region. Gaur is frequently seen south of contour canal where the livestock is prohibited, but in the entire area north of the canal, which is grazed by cows and buffaloes, it has never been observed though some habitat is suitable for gaur. Similarly, in the upper Aliyar-Kadamparai-Vandal region, and also around tribal settlements in the eastern parts, JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY 99(2), AUG. 2002 203 Fig. 6: Natural and man-made barriers for animal dispersal in Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary DISTRIBUTION PATTERNS, RELATIVE ABUNDANCE AND MANAGEMENT OF MAMMALS 204 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002 1. Karian Shola, 2 Top Slip, 3. Perambikulam, 4 Sarkarpathi, 5. Varagaiiyar, 6. Ayamgulam, 7. Manampalli P. House. 8. Urlikal, 9. Shekalmudi, 10 Varutparai ll .korangumuclj, 12. Sholaiyar, 13. Vaiparai, 14. Cinnakallar, 15. Iyerpadi, 16.36HP. 17. Akkamalai, 18. Andiparai, 19. Sirikundru, 20. Nadumalat, 2 1 . Navamalai, 22. Mavidappu, 23. Karumutti, 24. Kulipatti, 25. Kurumalai, 26. Kottaiar, 27. Erumakandi, 28. Thirumurthy, 29. Isalthittu, 30. Attukudi. 31.Kodandur, 32. Chinnar Cneck Post, 3j. Elumalaikovil, 34. Aniaravathi, 35. Vandiar, 36. Thuvanam, 37. Varavandiodai DISTRIBUTION PATTERNS , RELATIVE ABUNDANCE AND MANAGEMENT OF MAMMALS though a large area is relatively dry, it is still suitable for gaur in most places. The availability of natural fodder in these areas is evident from the fact that a large number of domestic animals graze here. Management of wild mammals in Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary The habitat types, distribution and relative abundance of mammals and the biotic pressures in Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary have implications for management. Management in the wet western region: The main feature of the western ranges is the fragmentation of rainforest, and the presence of forest fragments in tea estates. In a detailed study of forest fragmentation and its effect on arboreal and terrestrial small mammals, Kumar et al. (1998) stated that several parameters related to these fragments influence the presence of mammals in different ways. The size of the fragments influenced the occurrence of arboreal mammals with lion-tailed macaques as the most affected. The loss of canopy contiguity directly affected the presence of the Nilgiri langur. The distribution patterns of rodents were influenced such that the forest fragments smaller in size and frequented by humans have become dominated by the commensal species. Spiny dormouse has disappeared totally from small fragments. According to Kumar et al. (1998), more than the size, it was the quality of a fragment that determined the occurrence of mammalian species. This observation has far reaching implications for the management of forests and wildlife in the western ranges of Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary. As mentioned in the results, the Valparai plateau is frequently used by small and large mammals to move between Manampalli/Urlikal/Shekalinudi and Nirar/ Cinnakallar/Akkamalai areas. During these movements, the animals make use of the remaining forest fragments for forage and as shelter. Some of these very crucial private forest patches are at Varutparai, Puthuthotam, Sirikundru, Korangumudi, Nadumalai, and other smaller patches of vegetation along streams. The region being a plateau, the animals have probably historically used these areas for movement, and will continue to use them. It is, therefore, a must that these forest fragments, including monocultures of eucalyptus in some places, are paid special attention. Since these fragments also harbour arboreal mammals, special attention also must be paid to the type of vegetation around and inside these fragments. A plan can be developed to retain these fragments, improve the quality of vegetation and also to link them through stream corridors. This plan is workable and can be executed with the help of the management of tea estates, showing them that it is in their long-term interest if the private forest fragments are maintained and improved. If these fragments are removed or further degraded, man- animal conflict may only become severe, resulting in the loss of property and human lives due to the larger mammals. Some rainforest areas such as Sankarankudi are underplanted with cardamom. Green and Minkowski ( 1 977) stated that clearing the dense undergrowth vegetation destroys the intricate network of roots supplied by the smaller plants rendering the soil in cardamom fields more vulnerable to erosion. As the removed vegetation no longer contributes to leaf litter and soil humus, the moisture retention capability of soil is reduced. They further stated that when a cardamom field is abandoned, the early success ional stages of the forest are inhibited, with a long-term effect on the regeneration process. The area under cardamom plantation, therefore, should be minimized, or the practice should be abandoned. Management in the dry eastern region: Although there are a few perennial water sources available in the form of rivers such as Kurumalaiar, Vandiar, Kottaiar, Chinnar and Tirumurthy and Amaravathi reservoirs, most of JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002 205 DISTRIBUTION PATTERNS, RELATIVE ABUNDANCE AND MANAGEMENT OF MAMMALS the areas in the northeast and southeast of the Sanctuary are dry. The terrestrial mammals, during the dry months, are restricted to areas where water is available. Elephants move to the wet regions in the west during the dry season. However, the other small mammals probably do not have such seasonal migrations. The steep hills in many parts of the east are inaccessible to many mammalian species, especially the larger ones. Therefore, the valleys and streambeds of these hills are critical and must be left undisturbed for local movement of animals. In many places, settlements are placed right inside the most feasible and the only accessible places for animals. For example, the Attukudi settlement has cut off animal movement from Vandiar and Kottaiar towards Kodandur. Isalthittu settlement is another critical point for animals to move between Elumalaikovil and Guddar. Further, the human movement is most frequent between Tirumurthymalai-Kurumalai, Tirumurthymalai-Kottaiar-Attukudi-Kodandur- Chinnar Check Post, Kurumalai-Kulipatti, Poosakottam-Thalamedupatti, Kulipatti- Karumutti, Mavidappu-Upper Aliyar-Navarmalai, Chinnar 9th Checkpost-Elumalaikovil and Vandal- Kadamparai. Although gaur are found in areas grazed by livestock in other sanctuaries such as Mudumalai, in Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary, the presence of domestic cattle appears to reduce the presence of gaur. Locals informed us that gaur was present in some areas about 50 years back, but is absent now. Although it is not possible to stop the movement of people and livestock immediately, it should be minimized in most crucial areas such as streambeds and valleys. The grazing areas should be clearly demarcated for settlements such as Kurumalai, Kulipatti, Attukudi, and Thalmedupatti. Minimizing grazing may also help to reestablish gaur in many areas where it is now totally absent in spite of habitat suitability. A serious thought must also be given to the eucalyptus plantations raised during 1970s and 1980s in many parts of the eastern ranges. These monoculture plantations could be removed, permitting the native species to regenerate. This would result in an increase in the forage areas for herbivores. Overall management perspectives: A vision for the Sanctuary 50 years from now must be clearly chalked out. In order to manage these hills scientifically, Nilgiri tahr, elephant and lion-tailed macaque may be taken as flagship species. These species are endangered and represent the terrestrial and arboreal wildlife of these hills. Tribal settlements should be relocated outside the Sanctuary. However, this is easier said than done. Therefore, a highly pragmatic scheme must be developed with attractive incentives for these people to move out of the forest. It is our observation that most of the younger generation of these tribes are willing to settle outside. This is an intricate social problem and a multi-pronged strategy should be developed with a long-term perspective in mind. For now, the tribes may be supplied with iron poles and raw material for construction of houses. This practice will ease the pressure for logs from the forest. Periodic monitoring of wild mammals: Due to the limitations of time and other resources, the line transects as well as the plots were monitored only twice in some areas and once in most areas. Data collected in this manner does not provide the statistical rigour that is needed. It is, therefore, suggested that a few transects and plots must be laid out permanently and repeatedly monitored in different seasons. This activity should be differentiated from the annual census. Records on the sightings and movement of larger mammalian species must be regularly maintained by the staff. Weekly entries may be made in the register kept by each range officer. The data may also be computerized to facilitate analysis. Such information would be extremely useful in identification of habitat use patterns by mammals. 206 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002 DISTRIBUTION PATTERNS, RELATIVE ABUNDANCE AND MANAGEMENT OF MAMMALS Road kills account for a fairly large number of herpetofauna and small mammals (Kumara et al. 2000b) in the Sanctuary. Vehicular traffic on the roads inside the Sanctuary must be restricted to the essential at night and in the wet season. There is no need to construct new roads inside the Sanctuary. However, if such a necessity arises, the rainforest areas must be totally avoided. Further, the use of vehicles even by officials should be minimized on three roads: Varagaliyar-Manampalli, Akkamalai-Grasshills and 36HP-Kadamparai Dam. These roads go through the most sensitive areas and should not be open to tourists. Coordination must be established with the managers of tea estates to jointly carry out some conservation activities such as education and to curb the stealing of kills inside the estates. Refer Congreve, C.R.T. (1938): The Anaimalais. Madras, pp. 151. Daniels, R.J.R. (1994). A landscape approach to conservation of birds. J. Biosci. 19: 503-509. Davidar, E.R.C. (1978): Distribution and status of the Nilgiri tahr ( Hemitragus hylocrius ) - 1975-1978. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 75: 815-844. Davidar, E.R.C. (1987): The Anaimalais - Mountains of the elephant. Sanctuary 7: 214-225. Gibbons, J.D. ( 1971): Nonparametric Statistical Inference. McGravv Hill, New York. Pp. 306. Green, S.M. & K. Minkowski (1977): The lion-tailed macaque and its south Indian rainforest habitat. In: Primate Conservation, (Ed.: Bourne, G.H.). Academic Press, New York, pp. 289-337. Inger, R.F. & S.K. Dutta (1986): An overview of the amphibian fauna of India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 83 (Supplement): 135-146. Johnsingh, A.J.T. (1986): Diversity and conservation of carnivorous mammals in India. Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. (Supplement): 73-89. Karanth, K.U. ( 1 992): Conservation prospects for lion-tailed macaques in Karnataka, India. Zoo Biol. 11: 33-41. Kumar, A. ( 1 987): The Ecology and Population Dynamics of the Lion-Tailed Macaques (Macaca silenus) in South India. Ph.D. thesis, Cambridge University, UK. Pp. 174. Kumar, A. (1997): The lion-tailed macaque. In: In Danger, (Ed.: Manfredi, P.). Ranthambhore Foundation, New Acknowledgements This study was sponsored by the Tamil Nadu Forest Department and coordinated by the Nilgiris Wildlife and Environmental Association. We are grateful to Mr. R Prakasam, IFS, Mr. K.S. Neelakantan, IFS and Dr. T. Sekar, IFS for advice. We thank all the Range Forest Officers and other staff of the Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary for assistance during fieldwork; our fellow researchers including Mridula Singh, H.S. Sushma, Cornelia Bertsch, Matthew Cooper, Sindhu Radhakrishna, Ajith Kumar, Divya Mudappa, N.M. Ishwar, V. Karthik and Shankar Raman who contributed significantly at different times. We thank the anonymous referee for the valuable comments that enhanced the quality of this article. E N C E S Delhi, pp. 98-107. Kumar, A., M. Sivaganesan, G. Umapathy & A. Prabhakar (1998): A Study on the Management of Fragments of the Western Ghats for the Conservation of Fauna with Special Emphasis on Small Mammals. Final Technical Report, Salim Ali Centre for Ornithology and Natural History, Coimbatore, pp. !S0. Kumar, A., G. Umapathy & A. Prabhakar ( 1 995): A study on the management and conservation of the small mammals in fragmented rainforests of Western Ghats, south India: A preliminary report. Primate Conserv. 16: 53-58. Kumar, M.A., M. Singh, H.N. Kumara, A.K. Sharma & C. Bertsch (2001): Male migration in lion-tailed macaques. Primate Rep. 59: 5-18. Kumara, H.N., M. Singh, A.K. Sharma, M. Singh & M.A. Kumar (2000a): Faunal component in the diet of lion- tailed macaque. Primate Rep. 58: 57-66. Kumara, H.N., A.K. Sharma, M.A. Kumar & M. Singh (2000b): Road kills of wild fauna in Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary and its implications for management. Biosph. Conserv. 3: 41-47. Menon, S. & F.E. Poirier (1996): Lion-tailed macaques ( Macaca silenus) in a disturbed forest fragment: Activity patterns and time budgets. Ini. J. Primatol. 17: 967-985. Mishra, C. & A.J.T. Johnsingh (1998): Population and conservation status of the Nilgiri tahr Hemitragus JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2). AUG. 2002 207 DISTRIBUTION PATTERNS, RELATIVE ABUNDANCE AND MANAGEMENT OF MAMMALS hylocrius in Anaimalai Hills, south India. Biol. Conserv. 86: 199-206. Singh, M., M. Singh, H.N. Kumara, M.A. Kumar & L. D’souza (1997a): Inter- and intra-specific associations of non-human primates in Anaimalai Hills, south India. Mammalia 61: 17-28. Singh, M., M. Singh, M.A. Kumar, H.N. Kumara & L. D’souza (1997b): Distribution and research potential of non-human primates in the AJiyar-Valparai sector of Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary, Tamil Nadu, India. Trop. Biodiv. 4: 197-208. Singh, M., M. Singh, M.A. Kumar, H.N. Kumara, L. D’souza & A. K. Sharma(1998): Behaviour of lion- tailed macaque ( Macaca silenus ) in vulnerable and relatively secure habitats in the rainforests of Western Ghats, India. Tigerpaper 25: 19-25. Singh, M., M. Singh, M.A. Kumar, H.N. Kumara, A.K. Sharma & ITS. Sushma (2000): Niche separation in sympatric lion-tailed macaque and Nilgiri langur ( Presbytis johnii) in an Indian tropical rainforest. Primate Rep. 58: 83-95. Sundararaju, R. (1987): Management Plan for Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary, PolJachi. Office of the Chief Wildlife Warden, Chennai. APPENDIX-1 TRIBAL SETTLEMENTS WITH APPROXIMATE NUMBER OF HOUSEHOLDS AND LIVES TOCK IN INDIRA GANDHI WILDLIFE SANCTUARY SI. No. Name of settlement Region No. ofhouseholds Number of cattle 1. Erumuparai Wet 40+ Not seen 2. Kolikamuthi Wet 40+ Not seen J. Varagaliyar Wet 30+ Not seen 4. Kumati Wet 20 Not seen 5. Nedungunciru Wet 30+ 40+ 6. Sankarankudi Wet 20+ Not seen 7. Sundarar.akudi Wet 15+ Not seen 8. Kallarkudi Wet 14 10+ 9. Cinchonakudi Wet 15 10+ 10. Udumanparai Wet 40 15+ 11. Palagankudi Wet 40+ 20+ 12. Kavarakkal Wet 15+ 10+ 13. Kadamparai Wet 10 Not seen 14. Vellumudi Wet 15+ 15+ 15. Ithakuli Wet 10 Not seen 16. Mavidappu Dry 35+ 200+ 17. Karumutti Dry 20+ 40+ 18 Kulipatti Dry 30+ 50+ 19. Karumalai Dry 75 250+ 20. Chinnar(PolIachi) Dry 20+ 10+ 21. Jaliimuthuparai Dry 7 10+ 22. Vandal Dry 50 200+ 23. Koltaiar Dry 15 20 24. Alumalaikudi Dry 15 15+ 25. Kodandur Dry 15+ 300+ 26. Tirumurthy Dry 20+ 100+ 27. Isalthittu Dry 30-t- 100+ 28. Poosakottamparai Dry 10 Not known 29. Talamedapatti Dry 10 15+ 30. Selavuthu Dry 10 25+ 31. Elumalaikovil Dry 1 10+ 32. Karathupathi Dry 15 100+ 33. Keelpunachi Dry 20+ 50+ 34. Contour canal Dry 10+ 15+ 35. Navamaiai Dry 15+ 50+ 208 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002 DISTRIBUTION PATTERNS, RELATIVE ABUNDANCE AND MANAGEMENT OF MAMMALS APPENDIX-II TRANSECT NUMBERS, PLACES OF TRANSECT AND DISTANCE OF EACH TRANSECT Transect Place No. Distance (m) Transect Place No. Distance (m) 1 Konalar - towards Vandal 7,000 20 Varagaliyar - Kadavasati 2,000 2 Konalar - Periyakulam 6,000 21 Varagaliyar - Perugundru 2,500 3 Konalar - Kerala border 4,500 22 Varagaliyar - Parambikuiam 1,000 4 Waterfall - lyerpadi 4.000 23 Top Slip - Kolambamalai 2,775 5 Akkamaiai - lyerpadi 5,000 24 Angalakurchi - Erumukundi 3,000 6 36HP - Kavarakal 2,500 25 Navamalai - towards Mavidappu 1,500 7 Waterfall - Upper Aliyar Dam 4,000 26 Contour canal - Shakthi Estate 1,700 8 Mavidappu - Feeder Tank 3,200 27 Tirumurthy Malai - Kurumalai 4,126 9 Attakatti - Andiparai 4.000 28 Kurumalai - Kulipatti 4,576 10 Nedugundru - Power House 4,600 29 Kurumalai - Kottaiar 3,500 11 Nedugundru - Panathiar 3.900 30 Kottaiar- Kodandur 3,000 12 Shekalmudi - Searchtop 4,140 31 Kurumalai - Papamparai 4,780 13 Nallamudi - Edumalaiar 2,500 32 Kurumalai -Guddar 4,226 14 Cinchona Settlement - Itiliar 3,500 33 Guddar ~ Tirumurthy Malai 4,466 15 Power Flouse - Kumati 3,130 34 Elumalaikovil - Ponganaodai 2,400 16 Top Slip - towards Pandaravarai 3,200 35 CinnarChowki - Kodandur 2,500 17 Top Slip - Kathadimalai 2,000 36 Kootar-Thuvanam 4,781 18 Top Slip - Anaigunthi 2,000 37 Amaravathi Dam - Thuvanani 1,750 19 Top Slip - Umayamalai 1,200 38 Amaravathi - towards Kalad igatti 1,500 For locations, see Fig. 2 DISTRIBUTION OF APPENDIX-111 NILGIR! TAHR IN INDIRA GANDHI WILDLIFE SANCTUARY Hill range Altitude (m) Status Forest Range Population I Panadaravarai ( 1 ) 1,200-1,300 8a Ulandy Kataradi Malai (2) n Present n Population 11 Kolambu Malai (3) 500-1,733 6" Ulandy Sottakkal Malai (4) ” Present ii Kombanpalli Malai (5) ii 5* Pollachi Periyasallakatti Malai (6) ii Present ii Pachcha Malai (7) ii Present ii Varaiyadu Malai (8) ii <;* ii 3 HP (9) ii Q* ii Navamalai Feeder Tank ( 1 0) ii 2* ii Bhutagundu (11) n Present ii Perunkundru (12) ii 12* Ulandy Periyatalanar Malai (13) ii Present Valparai Nadumkundru (14) ii Present Chinnatalanar Malai ( 1 5) Present ii Population 111 Pamban Malai (16) 1,000-1,150 14" Ulandy Vengoli Malai (17) ii Present JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002 209 DISTRIBUTION PATTERNS, RELATIVE ABUNDANCE AND MANAGEMENT OF MAMMALS APPENDIX-III (contd.) DISTRIBUTION OF NILGIRI TAHR IN INDIRA GANDHI WILDLIFE SANCTUARY Hill range Altitude (m) Status Forest Range Population IV Palagan Malai (18) 1,014 Present Manampalli Population V Manjimedu (19) 870-2,212 15" Pollachi Thadaganachi Malai (20) 11 5* Pollachi Karimedu (21) 11 Present ii Sanda Malai (22) 11 Present Udumalpet Puttu Malai (23) 11 Present ii Varaiyattutittu (24) 11 Present ii Keda Malai (25) 11 Present ii Raman Malai (26) 11 Present ii Kanji Malai (27) 11 Present ii Varasatti Malai (28) 11 Present ii Ten Malai (29) 11 Present ii Bahirava Malai (30) 11 4* ii Kokkana Malai (31) 11 Present Valparai Pichchi Malai (32) 11 5* Udumalpet Attn Malai (33) 11 Present Pambu Malai (34) 1i 3* ii Arasiamma Malai (35) 11 Present ii Kota Malai (36) ” Present ii Rasi Malai (37) 11 Present ii Population VI Pachchapal Malai (38) 1,730 71* Valparai Population VII Usi Malai (39) 2,150-2,513 Present Valparai Tanaka Malai (40) ii 191* ii Akkamalai (41) ii 6* ii Tangachi Malai (42) ii Present ii Kallar Malai (43) ” 6* ii Kaludaisutti Malai (44) Present ii Sedayandi Malai (45) ii Present ” Podu Malai (46) ii 8* ii Population VIII Eruma Malai (47) 744 2* Amaravathi "indirect signs; * Seen; Present; - Information from local people Number in parentheses indicates location in Fig. 4 ■ m ■ 210 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002 DERMAPTERA IN THE COLLECTION OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, MUMBAI1 N. Chaturvedi2 and G.K. Srivastava3 Key words: Dermaptera, Abor Expedition, Assam, Arunachal Pradesh The study is based upon a part of the collection made during the Abor Expedition — 191 1-1912 covering the present day Assam and Arunachal Pradesh. Altogether, 23 species (excluding seven identified up to generic level, since represented either by females or nymphs) belonging to 20 genera are dealt with. The Dermaptera collection at the Bombay Natural History Society contains 23 species (excluding 7 identified up to generic level only), belonging to 20 genera under 7 families. It is not possible to identify isolated females and nymphs, since the taxonomy of the Order is based primarily on males. A part of the collection (ex Indian Museum) made during the Abor Expedition, 1911-12, conducted in present day Assam and Arunachal Pradesh, was determined and reported by Burr (1913). Family: Pygidicranidae Subfamily: Pygidicraninae Genus: Crcmopygia Burr, 1908 (= Kalocrania Zacher, 1910) 1 . Cranopygia sp. 1 nymph: Label I (printed) Indian Mus., Rotung, 1400 ft (426.72 m), Abor Exped., 3 1 .xii . 1 9 1 1 , de Courcy, Label 11 (handwritten) Kalocrania siamensis Dohrn, Label III B-printed, denotes M. Burr; 1 nymph: Label I (printed) Indian Mus., Abor Exped., above Panaji, 400 ft (121.92 m) 16. i. 1912, Kemp, Label II (handwritten by Burr) Kalocrania siamensis Dohrn; 1 nymph: Label I (printed) Indian Mus., Kobo 400 ft (121.92 m), Abor Exped., 11. xii. 1912, Kemp, Label II (handwritten by Burr) Kalocrania siamensis 'Accepted December, 2000 2Bombay Natural History Society, Hornbill House, S.B. Singh Road, Mumbai 400 023, Maharashtra, India. ■Zoological Survey of India/M’ Block, New Alipur, Kolkata 700 053, West Bengal, India. Dohrn, Label III B-printed, denotes M. Burr and Label IV (printed) 2349/19 (Regn. No. of Indian Mus., Now Zoological Survey of India [ZSI]). Remarks: Burr (1913) referred these specimens tentatively to Kalocrania siamensis Dohrn, and Hincks (1959) considered it a dubious record. Since only nymphs are present, these could be identified up to the generic level only. Subfamily: Diplatyinae Genus: Diplatys Serville, 1831 2. Diplatys sp. 3 Females: No data on locality. Remarks: In the absence of a male, it is not possible to identify the species. 3. Diplatys sp. 1 1 ex: Label I (printed) Bombay, July 1911, N.B. Kinnear, Label II (handwritten) Diplatys fletcheri Burr; 1 ex: Label I Belgaum, N.B. Kinnear, September 7, 1915, Label II (handwritten) Diplatys fletcheri Burr. Remarks: The hind parts in both the specimens are absent. Hence, it is not possible to confirm the species or sex. 4. Diplatys sp. 2 1 ex (hind parts broken off): Label 1 (partly printed and handwritten) Under stones, Chikalda, N.B. Kinnear, 26.xi.1913, Label II (handwritten) K. kinneri; 1 Female Label I (partly printed and handwritten) Bombay, N.B. JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002 211 DERMAPTERA COLLECTION OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY Kinnear, July, 1912, Label II (handwritten) D. kinneri. Remarks: An anonymous handwritten det. label D. kinneri is attached to both the specimens. It is a manuscript name. Subfamily: Echinosomatinae Genus: Echinosoma Serville, 1839 5. Echinosoma sp. 1 nymph: Label I (printed) Indian Mus., Abor Exped., Sadiya, N.E. Assam, 26.xi.1911, Kemp; Label II (handwritten by Burr) Echinosoma sumatranum Haan; 1 nymph: Label I (printed) Indian Mus., Panaji, 400 ft (121.92 m), Abor Exped., 1 6.i. 1912, Kemp; Label II (handwritten by Bun*) Echinosoma sumatranum Haan. Remarks: The species could not be confirmed in the absence of a male. Perhaps these are referable to E. convolutum Hincks. 1959, which commonly occurs in NE India. Family: Anisolabididae Subfamily: Anisolabidinae Genus: Euborellia Burr, 1910 6. Euborellia femoralis (Dohrn, 1863) 1 Female, Dangs, 3 1.x. 1963, E.M. Shull, det. as Labidura dohrni (E); 1 Male, Dangs, 3 1.x. 1963, E.M. Shull, det. as Psalis dohrni (G). Remarks: Elytra and wings are well developed in both the specimens. 7. Euborellia sp. 1 early nymph, Bombay, 17.vii.1975. 8. Euborellia annulata (Fabricius, 1793) 1 Female: Label I (partly printed and handwritten) Bombay, N.B. Kinnear, July- September, 1912, Label II (handwritten) Euborellia stali (Dohrn). Remarks: The above species name was considered valid by Brindle (1981) and Srivastava (1999). Genus: Aborolabis Srivastava, 1969 9. Aborolabis pervicina (Burr, 1913) 1 male: Label I (printed) Indian Mus., Abor Exped., Rotung, 1400 ft (426.72 m), Kemp, 28.xii.191 1, Label II (printed) Under bark, Label III (handwritten) Anisolabis pervicina Burr, Label IV B - printed, denotes M. Burr; 1 Female: Label I (printed) Indian Mus., Abor Exped., Rotung, 1 400 ft (426.72 m), Kemp, 29.xii. 1 9 1 1 , M. de Courcy Label II (handwritten) Anisolabis pervicina Burr, Label III B - printed, denotes M. Burr; 1 Female: Label I (printed) Indian Mus., Abor Exped., Dibrugarh, NE Assam, 17- 1 9 . x i . 1 9 1 1 , Kemp, Label II (handwritten) Anisolabis pervicina Burr. Genus: Anisolabella Zacher, 1911 10. Anisolabella dohrni (Kirby, 1891) 2 Females: Chikalda Berars, 3644 ft (1110.69 m), 1 7.xi. 1913, N.B. Kinnear, under stones; 1 Female: Chikalda Berars, 3644 ft (1110.69 m), 25. xi. 1913, N.B. Kinnear; 3 Females: Bombay, 3 1 .xii. 1913, N.B. Kinnear; 1 ex (hind parts missing): Bombay, July 1911, N. B. Kinnear; 1 Female: Bombay, October 1911, N.B. Kinnear. Genus: Apolabis Burr, 1915 1 1 . Apolabis aborensis (Burr, 1913) 1 Female: Label 1 (printed) Indian Mus., Abor Exped., Rotung, 1400 ft (426.72 m), 25.xii.1911 Kemp, Label II (handwritten by Burr) Euborellia aborensis Burr. 212 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY 99(2), AUG. 2002 DERMAPTERA COLLECTION OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY Remarks: This specimen may be treated as a paratype, although it was not designated so. Family: Labiduridae Subfamily: Nalinae Genus: Nala Zacher, 1910 12. Nala lividipes (Dufour, 1820) 1 male: Santacruz, Bombay, 7.xi.l912, N.B. Kinnear; 1 Female: Santacruz, Bombay, 6 .x i . 1 9 1 2, N.B. Kinnear; 1 ex (hind parts missing): Dangs, 7.xi.l963, E.M. Shull; 1 male: Dangs, 7.xi.l963, E.M. Shull; 1 male: Nalsarovar, Ahmedabad, 1 7.i. 1 962, H. Abdulali; 1 Female: Soccoro, Goa, September, 1915, P.F. Gomes. 13. Nala nepalensis (Burr, 1907) 1 male: Label I (printed) Indian Mus., Abor Exped., Yambung, 1400 ft (426.72 m), 1 3 .i. 1 9 1 2, Kemp, Label II (printed) 2431/19, Label III (handwritten by Burr) Nala nepalensis Burr. Subfamily: Labidurinae Genus: Labidura Leach, 1915 14. Labidura riparia (Pallas, 1773) (= Labidura bengalensis Dohrn, 1863) 1 Male, 1 Female, 1 ex (hind parts missing): Soccoro, Goa, September 1915, P.F. Gomes; 1 Female: Dangs, 1.x. 1963, E.M. Shull; 1 Male: Dangs, 29. ix. 1963, E.M. Shull; 1 Female: Dangs, 28. ix. 1963, E.M. Shull; 1 ex (hind parts missing): Dangs, 30.x. 1963, E.M. Shull; 1 Male: Dangs, 3.x. 1963, E.M. Shull; 1 Male: Monghyr, 21.xi.l962, R.B. Grubh; 1 Male: Great Rann of Kutch, March, 1960, P.W. Soman. Genus: Forcipula Bolivar, 1897 15. Forcipula sp. 1 nymph: Nalsarovar, Ahmedabad, H. Abdulali, 1 7. ii . 1 962; earlier determined as nymph of F pugnax ; 1 nymph: Belgaum, N.B. Kinnear, 5.ix. 1910 16. Forcipula abbreviala Srivastava, 1986 1 Male: Label I (printed) Indian Mus., Yambung stream, 1100 ft (335.28 m), Abor Exped., 17. i. 1912, Kemp, Label II (printed) under stone, Label III (handwritten by Burr) Forcipula pugnax Kirby, Label IV (printed) 2419/19 (Regn. No. of Indian Mus., now ZSI); 1 nymph: Label I (printed) Indian Mus., Abor Exped., Yambung stream, 1100 ft (335.28 m), 17. i. 1912, Kemp, Label II (printed) under stone, Label III (handwritten by Burr) Forcipula pugnax Kirby, Label IV (printed) 2423/19 (Regn. No. of Indian Mus. now ZSI), Label V B - printed, denotes M. Burr. 17. Forcipula quadrispinosa (Dohrn, 1863) 1 ex: Dangs, 1 8.ix. 1 963, E.M. Shull; 2 exs: Dangs, 22. ix. 196.3, E.M. Shull; 2 Males: Dangs, 2.x. 1963, E.M. Shull; 2 exs: Dangs, 6.xi.!963, E.M. Shull; 1 Male: Nasik, 30.xi.1913, N.B. Kinnear; 1 ex: Pune, December, 1924, V.S. La Personne; 1 Female: Soccoro, September, 1915, P.F. Gomes. Family: Apachydiae Genus: Apachyus Serville, 1831 18. Apachyus feae Bormans, 1894 1 nymph: Label I (printed) Indian Mus., Kemp, Abor Exped., Yambung, 1100 ft (335.28 m), 1 4. i . 1 9 1 2, Label II (printed) under bark, Label III (handwritten by Burr) Apachyus feae JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY 99(2), AUG. 2002 213 DERMAPTERA COLLECTION OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY Borm., Label IV B - printed, denotes M. Burr; 1 nymph: Label I Indian Mus., Abor Exped., Kemp, Rotung, 1400 ft (426.72 m), 28.xii.1911, Label II (printed) under bark, Label III (handwritten by Burr) Apachyus feae Borm., Label IV B - printed, denotes M. Burr; 1 nymph: Label I (printed) Indian Mus., Abor Exped, Kemp, Rotung, 1400 ft (426.72 m), 28.xii.1911, Label II (printed) under bark, Label III (handwritten by Burr) Apachyus feae Borm., Label IV B - printed, denotes M. Burr; 1 nymph: (only thorax remaining) Label I (printed) Indian Mus., Abor Exped, Dibrugarh, NE Assam, 17- 19.xii.191 1, Label II (printed) under bark, Label III (handwritten by Burr) Apachyus feae Borm., Label IV B - printed, denotes Burr, Label V (printed) 2447/19 (Regn. No. of Indian Mus., now ZSI). Family: Spongiphoridae Subfamily: Irdexinae Genus: Irdex Burr, 1911 19. Irdex nitidipennis (Bormans, 1894) (= Spongophora lutea Bormans, 1 894) (= Spongophora aborum Burr, 1913) (= Spongovostox wuermalii Brindle, 1975) 1 ex (only thorax present): Label I (printed) Indian Mus., Abor Exped., Rotung, 1400 ft (426.72 m), 25.xii.191 1, Kemp, Label II (printed) under bark, Label III (handwritten by Burr) Spongovostox luieus Borm., Label IV B printed, denotes M. Burr; 1 Female (only hind parts): Label I (printed) Indian Mus., Abor Exped. Kobo, 400 ft (121.92 m) 28.xii.1911, Kemp, Label II (printed) under bark, Label III (handwritten by Burr) Spongovostox aborum Burr (Brachypterous E), Label IV (printed) 2268/19 (Regn No. of Indian Mus., now ZSI); 1 Male (hind parts present): Label I (printed) Indian Mus., Abor Exped., Rotung, 23.xii.1911, Kemp, Label II (printed) under bark, Label III (handwritten by Burr) Spongovostox aborum Burr (Brachypterous G), Label IV B - printed, denotes M. Burr; 1 male (anterior portion present): Label I (printed) Indian Mus., Abor Exped., Rotung, 1 .xii. 1911, Kemp, Label II (printed) under bark. Label III Spongovostox aborum Burr (Brachypterous G), Label IV B printed, denotes M. Burr; 1 ex (only head and thorax present): Label I (printed) Indian Mus., Abor Exped., Kobo, 400 ft (121.92 m), 8.xii.l91 1, Kemp, Label II (printed) under bark, Label III (handwritten by Burr) Spongovostox luteus Borm., Label IV B - printed, denotes M. Burr. Subfamily: Labiinae Genus: Chaetospania Karsch, 1886 20. Chaetospania feae Bormans, 1894 1 Male: Label I (printed) Indian Mus., Abor Exped., Rotung, 1400 ft (426.72 m), 28. xii. 1911, Kemp, Label II (printed) under bark, Label III (handwritten by Burr) Chaetospania feae Borm. G, Label IV (printed) 2136/19 (Regn. No. of Indian Mus., now ZSI); 1 Female (head missing): Label I (printed) Indian Mus., Abor Exped., Rotung, 1400 ft (426.72 m), 23.xii.1911, Kemp, Label II (printed) under bark, Label III (handwritten by Burr) Chaetospania feae Borm. E, Label IV 23 1 1/19 (Regn. No. of Indian Mus., now ZSI). Genus: Circolabia Steinmann, 1987 2 1 . Circolabia curvicauda (Motschulsky, 1863) 1 Female: Label I (printed) Indian Mus., Abor Exped., Rotung, 1400 ft (426.72m), 23. xii. 1911, Label II (printed) rotten wood, Label III (handwritten by Burr) Labia curvicauda Motsch.; 1 ex (anterior part remaining): Label I (printed) Indian Mus., Abor Exped., Rotung, 1400 ft (426.72 m), 29.U912, 214 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002 DERMAPTERA COLLECTION OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY Label II (printed) rotten wood, Label III (handwritten by Burr) Labia curvicauda Motsch.; 1 ex (anterior part remaining): Label I (printed) Indian Mus., Abor Exped., Rotung, 1400 ft (426.72 m), 23.xii.1911, Label II (printed) rotten wood, Label III (handwritten by Burr) Labia curvicauda Motsch. Family: Chelisochidae Subfamily: Chelisochinae Genus: Chelisoches Scudder, 1876 22. Chelisoches brevipennis Borelli, 1923 1 male (anterior parts only): Label I (printed) Indian Mus., Abor Exped., Rotung, 1400 ft (426.72 m), 24.xii.1911, Label II (printed) under leaf stem of decomposing plantain, Label III (handwritten by Burr) Chelisoches morio Fabr., G, Label IV 2389/19 (Regn. No. of Indian Mus., now ZSI); Genus: Adiathetus Burr, 1907 23. Adiathetus glaucopterus (Bormans, 1894) 1 Male: Label 1 (printed) Indian Mus., Abor Exped., Rotung, 1400 ft (426.72 m), 28.xii.1911, Kemp, Label II (printed) under bark, Label III (handwritten by Burr) Adiathetus glaucopterus Borm., Label IV 2182/19 (Regn. No. of Indian Mus., now ZSI); 2 Males (in one ex. anterior half remaining): Label I (printed) Indian Mus., Abor Exped., Dosing, 1400 ft (426.72 m), 29J.1912, Kemp; Label II (printed) under bark, Label III (handwritten by Burr) Adiathetus glaucopterus Borm. Label IV 2269/ 19 and 2270/19 (Regn. No. of Indian Mus., now ZSI); 1 ex (damaged): Label I (printed) Indian Mus., Abor Exped., Rotung, 1400 ft (426.72 m), 28.xii.1911, Kemp, Label II (printed) under bark, Label III (handwritten by Burr ) Adiathetus glaucopterus Borm., Label IV 2220/19 (Regn. No. of Indian Mus., now ZSI). Genus: Laprophorella Mjoberg, 1924 24. Laprophorella kervillei (Burr, 1905) 1 Male (hind parts remaining): Label I (printed) Indian Mus., Abor Exped., Dibrugarh, N.E. Assam, 22. ix. 1911, Kemp, Label II (partly printed) under leaf sheath of bamboo, Label III (handwritten by Burr) Lamprophorella kervillei Burr <7, Label IV B printed, denotes M. Burr; Label V (printed) 2443/19 (Regn. No. of Indian Mus., now ZSI; 1 Female (anterior portion remaining): Label I (printed) Indian Mus., Abor Exped., Dibru- garh, N.E. Assam, 22.ix.1911; Label II (printed) under leaf sheath of Bamboo, Label III (hand- written by Burr) Lamprophorella kervillei Burr, E. Genus Hamaxas Burr, 1907 25. Hamaxas kempi Burr, 1913 1 Female (hind parts missing): Label I (printed) Indian Mus., Abor Exped., Upper Rotung, 4.i. 1 912, Kemp, Label II (printed) under leaf sheath of plantain, Label III (handwritten by Burr) Hamaxas kempi Burr E; 1 Male (hind parts missing): Label I (printed) Indian Mus., Abor Exped., Rotung, 1400 ft (426.72 m), 29.xii.1911, Kemp, Label II (printed) under leaf sheath of plantain, Label III (handwritten by Burr) Hamaxas kempi Burr, G, Label IV 2408/19 (Regn. No. of Indian Mus., now ZSI); 1 Female (hind parts missing): Label I (printed) Indian Mus., Abor Exped., Rotung, 1400 ft (426.72 m), 28.xii.1911, Kemp, Label II (printed) under leaf sheath of plantain, Label III (handwritten by Burr) Hamaxas kempi Burr, E, Label IV 2203/19 (Regn. No. of Indian Mus., now ZSI). Family: Forficulidae Subfamily: Opisthocosmiinae Genus: Eparchus Burr, 1907 26. Eparchus insignis (Haan, 1842) 1 ex (only thorax with wings and elytra JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002 215 DERMAPTERA COLLECTION OF THE BOMBA Y NA TURA L HISTOR V SOCIETY present): Label I (printed) Indian Mus., Abor Exped., Rotung, 1 400 ft (426.72 m), 2 1 .xii. 1911, Kemp, Label II (printed) under bark, Label III (handwritten by Burr) Eparchus insignis Haan, Label IV 2172/19 (Regn. No. of Indian Mus., now ZS1). Genus: Timomenus Burr, 1907 27. Timomenus lugens (Bormans, 1894) 1 Male: No data on locality. Det. as Timomenus nevilli (Burr). Subfamily: Allodahlinae Genus: Allodahlia Verhoeff, 1902 28. Allodahlia scabriuscula (Serville, 1839) 1 Female: Label I (printed) Indian Mus., Abor Exped., Rotung, 1400 ft (426.72 m), 23 .xii. 1911, Label 1 1 (printed) under bark, Label 111 (handwritten by Burr) Allodahlia scabriuscula Serville, E, Label IV 2160/19 (Regn. No. of Indian Mus., now ZSI); 1 Male (anterior portion present): Label I (printed) Indian Mus., Abor Exped., Rotung, 1400 ft (426.72 m), 28.xii.191 1, Label II (printed) under bark, Label III Allodahlia scabriuscula Serville, G, Label IV 2146/19 (Regn. No. of Indian Mus., now ZSI); 1 Male: Label I (printed) Indian Mus., Abor Exped., Below Dosing, 1400 ft (426.72 m), 294.1912; Label II (printed) under bark, Label III Allodahlia scabriuscula Serville, G; 1 Male (hind portion present): Label I (printed) Indian Mus., Abor Exped., Kobo, 400 ft ( 1 2 1.92 m), 1 .xii. 1911, Kemp, Label II (printed) under bark. Label III Refer Brindle, A. (1981): The types of Dermaptera described by Fabricius. Entomologist’s Rec. J. Var. 15: 14-16. Burr, M. (1913): Zoological Results of the Abor Expedition, 1911-1912. Dermaptera. Rec. Indian Mus. 8(2): 135-147. Hincks, W.D. (1959): A systematic Monograph of the Dermaptera of the World based upon the material in Allodahlia scabriuscula Serville, G. Subfamily: FoRFicuLrNAE Genus: Elaunon Burr, 1907 29. Elaunon biparlitus (Kirby, 1891) 1 Female (head missing): Label I (printed) Indian Mus., Abor Exped., above Panaji, 4000 ft (1219.2 m), 164.1912, Kemp, Label II (printed) under bark, Label III (handwritten by Burr) Elaunon bipartitus Kirby, Label IV B printed, denotes M. Burr, Label V 2326/19 (Regn. No. of Indian Mus., now ZSI); 1 ex (elytra and wings only present): Label I (printed) Indiah Mus., Abor Exped., above Panaji, 4000 ft (1219.2 m), 164.1912, Kemp, Label II (printed) under bark; Label III (handwritten by Burr) Elaunon bipartitus Kirby, Label IV B - printed, denotes M. Burr, Label V) 2320/19 (Regn. No. of Indian Mus., now ZSI). Subfamily: Diaperasticinae Genus: Diaper asticus Burr, 1907 30. Diaperasticus erythrocephalus (Olivier, 1891) 1 Female (hind parts missing): Label I (printed) Belgaum, N.B. Kinnear, 4 September, 1910, Label II (handwritten) Elaunon erythrocephalus , E, W. Kirby. Remarks: This species is distributed in Africa and Madgascar only. The above identification is dubious. The hind parts of the specimen are missing. E N C E S British Museum (Natural History), Pt. II, Pygidicranidae excluding Diplaty inae, 218 pp., 214 figs., London, British Museum (Natural History). Srivastava, G.K. (1999): On the higher classification of Anisolabididae (Insecta: Dermaptera) with a checklist of genera and species. Rec. zool. Surv. India 97(1): 73-100. 216 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY 99(2), AUG. 2002 CHARACTERIZATION OF THE GENETIC STATUS OF POPULATIONS OF RED JUNGLEFOWL1 I. Lehr Brisbin Jr.2, A. Townsend Peterson3, Ronald Okimoto4 and George Amato5 ( With one text-figure) Key words: Red junglefowl, Callus gallus , chicken, domestication, genome conservation, hybridization The native range of the red junglefowl (Gallus gallus) in Southeast Asia and the Indian subcontinent has been the focus of studies of domestication of this species that became the foundation of a worldwide multi-billion dollar poultry industry. Such studies must be based on a thorough understanding of the behaviour, ecology, and biogeography of current as well as past populations. Although red junglefowl are considered abundant both in captivity and in the wild, and have usually not been accorded any particular conservation concern, almost all populations show morphological characteristics suggestive of past hybridization with domestic birds, and indeed pure genomes may prove to be now extinct in the wild. However, one captive population still shows two morphological characteristics considered to be indicative of genetic purity: (1) an annual moult to a dark/black eclipse plumage in the male, and (2) complete absence of combs in females. Preliminary molecular genetic studies of these birds indicate that they are more distinct from other captive strains than the latter are from domestic chickens. These captive birds may thus represent the last pure red junglefowl genomes. This paper establishes criteria for the judgment of genetic purity, in the hope that colleagues across southern Asia will assess local wild populations to develop an accurate picture of the genetic status of this species across its range. Introduction Red junglefowl ( Gallus gallus ) represent the ancestor of the most important bird species in economic terms — chickens, which constitute the basis for the multi-billion dollar poultry industry. Although wild red junglefowl are generally not considered to be of any conservation concern, studies of historical and recent museum specimens suggest that wild genomes may be critically endangered or even extinct in the ‘Accepted November, 2001 ^Savannah River Ecology Laboratory, P.O. Drawer E, Aiken, SC 29802, U.S.A. ■The University of Kansas Museum of Natural History, Dyche Hall, Lawrence, KS 66045-2454, U.S.A. ^Department of Poultry Science, University of Arkansas. Fayetteville, AR 72701, U.S.A. "Wildlife Conservation Society, 1 85"’ Street and Southern Boulevard, Bronx, NY 10460 U.S.A. natural state (Peterson and Brisbin 1998). One captive population (hereafter referred to as the JFW strain), however, has been kept in genetic isolation for more than three decades (Brisbin 2000, Hawkins 2001), and shows morphological characteristics which may offer unique insights into the history and current status of the red junglefowl. To approach these questions of genetic purity, however, requires a thorough knowledge of the morphological, ecological, and genetic characteristics of both the present-day and historical junglefowl populations. Traditionally, such studies have been based on examination of the phenotype, particularly as manifested in studies of captive birds and museum specimens (Delacour 1977). More recently, quantitative studies of museum specimens have revealed patterns of successive loss of characters presumed to indicate genetic purity in wild populations JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002 217 CHARACTER1ZA TION OF GENETIC STA TUS OF RED JUNGLEFOWL (Peterson and Brisbin 1998). The picture, nevertheless, remains incomplete, with only fragmentary survey information for wild populations and captive strains, as well as poor understanding of phenotypic markers used for such surveys (Peterson and Brisbin 1998). Additional tools drawn from molecular genetics and zooarchaeology have yet to be applied to this question; the purpose of this paper is to initiate the collection of such information, as well as to stimulate broader surveys of wild populations and captive strains. Morphological Characteristics of Pure Wild Red Junglefowl Our evaluation of the morphological characteristics of pure red junglefowl is based on features considered characteristic of genetically pure wild red junglefowl (Delacour 1977). Critical characters include (1) a complete moult to an overall dark/black “eclipse” plumage by the male following the breeding season (generally June-September), and (2) complete absence of a comb in the adult female. Other traits are cited as distinguishing pure wild junglefowl (Nyunt 1993) but have been generally found to be less reliable: (1) slender, dusky tarsi of wild birds are shared by several domestic forms (Smyth 1990), (2) longer spur-lengths than domestics (Nyunt 1993) has been discounted by our preliminary studies (Brisbin and Peterson unpubl. data). We have surveyed informally the occurrence of male eclipse plumages in captive red junglefowl L North America, as well as in 351 skins of adult wild junglefowl in 19 museum collections (Peterson and Brisbin 1998). These surveys suggest that the JFW population is the only North American red junglefowl captive population in which all birds consistently show the two characters listed above. The museum surveys also indicated, on the basis of the occurrence of male eclipse plumages, that genetically pure red junglefowl may also be extinct or critically endangered in the wild. This trait apparently disappeared from extreme Southeast Asia and the Philippines (if the latter populations are indeed native) prior to the mid- late 1800s, and from the Malaysian region in the 1 920s. Two recently examined skins indicate the survival of eclipse plumages on Hainan Island until the 1930s (Beijing Zoological Institute 01587, 01586). The last museum specimens showing male eclipse plumages were taken from north-central India in the mid to late 1960s (Peterson and Brisbin 1 998), exactly the time and place that the founders of the JFW population were brought out of the wild as part of an exotic gamebird propagation and release program of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Bohl and Bump 1970). History of the JFW Red Junglefowl Population The morphology and geographic distribution of extant subspecies of red junglefowl have been described and analysed in detail for decades (Delacour 1977). Studies of the JFW population, however, have raised serious questions concerning the morphological and genetic characteristics of pure red junglefowl (Peterson and Brisbin 1998). This small captive population is now being maintained by a consortium of private aviculturists in the southeastern United States (Brisbin 1 996, Brisbin 2000, Hawkins 2001), and may now represent the only source of genetically pure red junglefowl in the wild or in captivity (Peterson and Brisbin 1998). The JFW population was established from a small but undocumented number of founders captured in north-central India, in the vicinity of Dehra Dun, in the mid to late 1960s (Bohl and Bump 1970). Descendents of the wild founders were distributed to propagation centres in eight states in the southeastern United States, where over 6,000 birds were produced and released in natural habitats throughout the 218 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002 CHARA CTER1ZA TION OF GENETIC STA TUS OF RED JUNGLEFO WL region. Over the years, however, there has been no indication of long-term survival of free- ranging birds in any of the releases, and the program was terminated in the late 1960s. At this time, a second founder population of 50 chicks was taken from the Bowen’s Mill hatchery, near Fitzgerald, Georgia, USA, and moved to the University of Georgia’s Savannah River Ecology Laboratory, near Aiken, South Carolina. They were maintained in captivity and used in behavioural and ecological studies for several years (Brisbin 1969). From the early to mid 1970s through 1997, the entire JFW population was maintained in random pure captive propagation by a private aviculturist in Tuscaloosa, Alabama, with an annual pre- breeding population size of 10-20 adults of approximately equal sex ratio. Morphological and behavioural characteristics did not change appreciably from those of the original birds nearly 30 years earlier. This character stability has been particularly true regarding the extremely wary and flighty nature of the JFW birds, which has persisted in spite of continuing efforts to imprint and tame incubator-raised chicks. These observations confirm the findings of earlier behavioural studies that indicated little modification of their flighty nature in foster- rearing under tamed hybrid “zoo-type” red junglefowl hens (Brisbin 1969). Foster-reared birds, upon attaining sexual maturity, showed little tendency to integrate into the social hierarchy of the resident, free-ranging flock of hybrid junglefowl. They kept to themselves, and eventually dispersed into neighbouring wooded habitats and disappeared. In 1998, 65 hatch-year JFW birds were removed from the collection in Alabama and distributed among several private aviculturists in Georgia and South Carolina with a dozen or so adult breeders being retained in the Alabama collection. The population is thus dispersed now among experienced breeders, who are working together to ensure the continued existence of documented genetically pure birds in several captive sub-populations. Molecular Genetic Studies The unique nature of the JFW population suggested the importance of a molecular genetic characterization of these birds, particularly in the light of recent efforts to use molecular methods to identify the wild ancestors of domestic chickens (Siegel etal. 1992, Fumihito etal. 1994, 1 996). Though preliminary, the results of our first steps in this direction are reported below. Mitochondrial gene sequences were derived from PCR amplification products obtained from feather samples. Samples were taken from two JFW individuals, a domestic chicken of undetermined breed, and two domestic/feral bantam chickens from a specially- bred flock at the Savannah River Ecology Laboratory (Brisbin 1993). Samples were also analyzed from two captive zoo junglefowl with morphological characteristics suggestive of domestic contamination, from the Riverbanks Zoo, Columbia, South Carolina; these birds were direct descendants of the free-ranging “red junglefowl” formerly maintained at the San Diego Zoo (Collias et al. 1994). Outgroups for phylogenetic analyses included similar samples from a green junglefowl (G alius varius ), Malayan peacock-pheasant ( Polyplectron malacense ), and Bornean peacock-pheasant (P schleiermacheri ), all from the collections of the New York Zoological Society. We sequenced 1011 base pairs from two regions of the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) genome: (1) the relatively conservative 16S ribosomal gene, and (2) a portion of the more variable, protein-coding, cytochrome b gene. We used published primers based on the domestic chicken sequence for PCR amplification, and PCR products were sequenced directly on an ABI automated sequencer. The 16S sequence data were invariant in JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002 219 CHA RA CTERIZA TJON OF GENETIC STA TUS OF RED JUNGLEFO WL - 1 ~ — — " •" “pure" junglefowl — ■ — ■ domestic chicken — — — - - — — feral chicken 1 — - - — — ■ feral chicken2 — zoo junglefowl 1 — ■ "" — zoo junglefowl2 L— — — — — — — — Gallus varius ■ — — • - — — — — — — Polyplectron Fig. 1. Diagrammatic representation of results of preliminary phylogenetic analyses of mitochondrial DNA sequence data in junglefowl, chickens, and related pheasants. Feral chickens were taken from a special flock developed at the Savannah River Ecology Laboratory; individuals 1 and 2 represent different specimens of each form all four junglefowl and the domestic chicken. Sequences of the green junglefowl and the two peacock-pheasants were distinct. This result is more or less typical for this highly conserved gene region. Cytochrome b sequences, considering the small number of red junglefowl sampled, were fairly variable. The same sites were variable in both the JFW and zoo junglefowl groups. The two JFW individuals had identical haplotypes, which was not surprising, considering the bottlenecks of low population numbers in the history of this group. We analyzed these data phylogenetically, treating individual bases as unweighted and unordered characters. A single, most parsimonious tree placed the JF W birds basal to the two zoo junglefowl and domestic chicken (Fig. 1; consistency index 0.86). Genetic distances between the zoo junglefowl and domestic chickens were shorter than between the zoo junglefowl and the JFW birds. Most importantly, the JFW haplotype included two sites that were plesiomorphic when polarized by outgroup comparison, suggesting that this population does not share the common ancestry that is shared by the domestic chickens and the zoo junglefowl. Still, caution must be used in interpreting this information, given the small sample sizes available. We sequenced additional mtDNA from a single JFW male to parallel prior studies of chicken and junglefowl molecular genetics, focusing on the 392 base pair portion of the noncoding control region studied by previous investigators (Fumihito et al. 1994, 1996). The work of these authors, however, lacked samples from the western extreme of the species’ distribution in India. Our resulting JFW sequence showed 2% divergence from the published Barred Rock domestic chicken sequence (Fumihito et al. 1996). The JFW sequence fell within a clade that included all domestic sequences, and grouped broadly with Thai red junglefowl and Asian domestics, but was more distinct from western domestics. If the JFW sample had fallen outside of the domestic clade, the Thai-origin model (Fumihito et al. 1994, 1996) would have been supported. Rather, our results failed to support the conclusion of a Southeast Asian origin of domestic chickens. Our molecular data do not exclude a model of Indian origin of domestic chickens. Flere, the DNA composition of the Southeast Asian junglefowl used in previous studies (Fumihito et 220 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 99(2), AUG. 2002 CHA RA CTERIZA TION OF GENETIC STA TUS OF RED JUNGLEFO WL al. 1994, 1996) would be interpreted as showing the effects of hybridization with feral or domestic village chickens in that portion of the species’ distribution. Under this scenario, Fumihito et al. ’s Indonesian genotypes could possibly represent the original Asian redjunglefowl types. To support this alternative model, it would be necessary to show that museum specimens of birds collected earlier in Southeast Asia have different mtDNA types from those “red junglefowl” now found there, and that Indian red junglefowl have high mtDNA diversity. Taken together, the above findings have important implications for understanding chicken domestication. They particularly emphasize the importance of documenting the characteristics and history of populations from which samples are taken for DNA analysis. In the case of Fumihito et al. (1994, 1996), “wild” Southeast Asian junglefowl profiles were based on samples taken from zoo birds and other populations of unknown provenance. Personal observations by I LB, however, suggests that the wild behaviour of pure red junglefowl, such as the JFW birds, prevents them from being maintained on exhibition in most public zoo collections, where stress would be extreme. Furthermore, the external morphology of all zoo junglefowl we have observed fails to conform to the characteristics of pure wild genetic ancestry (Delacour 1977). Thus, without further information, the Tama Zoological Garden’s “Thai red junglefowl” used in the molecular studies (Fumihito etal. 1994, 1996) must remain suspicious as possibly showing the results of past genetic contamination. Additionally, birds described by the same authors as “gifts from the Department of Forestry of the Thai government” could have been obtained from near villages, where hybridization could have occurred even in the free-ranging state. In fact, our studies of museum specimens (Peterson and Brisbin 1998) suggest that morphological traits indicative of pure wild ancestry disappeared from these areas over 60 years before the sampling for that study. Flence, there is a real possibility that the similarity of molecular characters of these birds to those of domestic birds results from past hybridization, rather than being indicative of their status as the progenitor of the domestic birds. Implications for Chicken Domestication An important application of our findings is in the interpretation of ancient artifactual depictions of birds. Regarding traits indicative of pure wild stock (Delacour 1977), we are unaware of any representation of a male Gallus in what could be the dusky eclipse plumage, lacking the elongated bright-coloured neck hackles. The absence of such representation suggests either that this trait was lost early in the domestication process, or perhaps that its drab appearance was not considered worthy of depiction by ancient people. Similarly, with one possible exception, we are unaware of any representation of early female Gallus lacking a visible comb and facial wattles. An early Egyptian “chicken hieroglyph” depicts “the chick ... but never an adult bird” (Zeuner 1 963), which is the only possible exception. Given that the wild junglefowl would be combless in the adult hen (Delacour 1 977), we suspect that this hieroglyph may actually depict a combless hen such as those of the JFW strain. An important question is how could ancient people with limited facilities and skills for husbandry have managed to tame junglefowl to produce a captive and later domestic population, from such a wild and wary bird? Even early imprinted and hand-reared chicks of wild stock would have been extremely difficult if not impossible for ancient people to raise and breed successfully in full captivity or semi-confinement (Brisbin 1969, Bohl and Bump 1970). A more likely ancestor of domestic chickens would be more docile in disposition, show a prominent comb in hens, and might lack an eclipse plumage JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002 221 C HA RA CTER1ZA TION OF GENETIC STA TUS OF RED JUNGLEFO WL in the male. The discovery of such a population would leave unanswered the question of the status of populations of India, including the JFW birds. Hence, our studies raise the possibility that the JFW population may represent a well- differentiated group within red junglefowl, possibly a cryptic species, that may not have been involved in the domestication of chickens. Such a scenario has important implications both for understanding the biogeography and ecology of chicken domestication, as well as for the conservation of populations of captive and free- ranging red junglefowl. Perhaps the most parsimonious conclusion, however, is still that of the genetic purity of the JFW population, and the contamination of the rest of the populations of this species. Future Directions Clearly, continuing the pure captive propagation of the JFW population remains a priority. As available numbers and natural mortality permits, we are preparing a complete age series of study skins and skeletal material from these birds to permit thorough molecular and phenotypic comparisons. Several other research avenues remain, however, including the following: 1. Broad molecular surveys to establish phylogenetic patterns with much-improved detail, presently under development. 2. Broad phenotypic survey's to document geographic pattern of variation in critical characters, particularly as regards detection of previously unappreciated geographic breaks. 3. Limited hybridization and backcross experiments to assess the genetic basis for the phenotypic markers described above. Such experiments have now passed to the second generation of backcross of hybrids to JFW stock, providing a known-purity standard for evaluation of phenotypic markers. 4. Surveys of phenotypic and molecular characteristics of wild and captive populations of red junglefowl. This step is particularly critical in eastern and north- central India, where the probability of survival of pure stock is highest; some indications exist of possibly “clean” captive and wild populations in some remote areas of India (G. Das, pers. comm.), making this step of utmost importance. Acknowledgements None of these studies would have been possible without Isaac Richardson, who single- handedly maintained the JFW red junglefowl in pure propagation for over 25 years. Efforts to continue propagation of this strain have now been undertaken by the Georgia Game Bird Breeders Association and the Virginia-Carolinas Pheasant and Waterfowl Association, under the leadership of A1 Cumming and Wayne Hawkins, respectively. We are grateful to Ed Diebold and Bob Siebels of the Riverbanks Zoo for help in obtaining DNA samples from zoo junglefowl, Don Bruning of the Wildlife Conservation Society for continuing encouragement, and Stan Vesey and John Glisson for veterinary support. The senior author also thanks Alan Poole, Leo Joseph, and the staff of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia for hospitality and support while working in their collections; the Zoological Institute of Beijing kindly provided access to specimens for examination by ATP. Studies were supported in part by financial assistance award number DE-FC09-96-SR1 8546 from the United States Department of Energy to the University of Georgia’s Savannah River Ecology Laboratory. This paper is respectfully dedicated to the memory of Gardiner Bump and Wayne H. Bohl, whose tireless efforts in the 1960s and 1970s resulted in saving what may now be the last living remnant of the wild ancestor of the domestic chicken. 222 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002 CHARACTERIZATION OF GENETIC STATUS OF RED JUNGLEFOWL References Bohl, W. H. & G. Bump (1970): Summary of foreign game bird liberations 1960 to 1968 and propagation 1966 to 1 968. Wildlife No. 1 30, Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife, Division of Wildlife Research, Washington, D.C. Pp. 61. Brisbin, I.L., Jr. (1969): Behavioral differentiation of wildness in two strains of red junglefowl (Abstract). American Zoologist 9(4): 1072. Brisbin, I.L., Jr. (1993): The Carolina bantam chicken: An experimental approach to life in the feral state. AM BC News 10(1): 4-5. Brisbin, I.L., Jr. ( 1996): Concerns for the genetic integrity and conservation status of the red junglefowl. Tragopan 4: 11-12. Brisbin, I.L., Jr. (2000): Red junglefowl captive propagation: Conservation group forms within the GGBBA. The TIatcher 2000: 16-18. Collias, N.E., E.C. Collias & R.l. Jennrich (1994): Dominant Red Junglefowl ( Gallus gallus ) hens in an unconfined flock rear the most young over their lifetime. Auk 111: 863-872. Del .acour, J. (1977): The pheasants of the world. (2nd Edition). Spur Publications, Hindhead, Surrey, England. Pp. 395. Fumihito, A., T. Miyake, S. Sumi, M. Takada, S. Ohno & N. Kondo (1994): One subspecies of the red junglefowl ( Gallus gallus gallus ) suffices as the matriarchic ancestor of all domestic breeds. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., USA, Vol No. 91: 12505-12509. Fumihito, A., T. Miyake, M. Takada, R. Shingu, T. Endo, 4’. Gojobori, N. Kondo & S. Ohno (1996): Monophyletic origin and unique dispersal patterns of domestic fowls. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., USA, Vol No. 93:6792-6795. Hawkins, W.P. (2001): Red Junglefowl-pure strain. Game Bird and Conservationists. Gazette 48(1): 62-64. Nyunt, K.M. (1993): How to identify the red junglefowl. Avicultural Magazine 99: 76-78. Peterson, A.T. & EL. Brisbin, Jr. (1998): Genetic endangennent of wild red junglefowl Gallus gallus ? Bird Conservation International 8: 387-394. Siegel, P.B., A. Haberfeld, T.K. Mukherjee, L.C. Stallard, H.L. Marks, N B. Anthony & E.A. Dunnington (1992): Junglefowl - domestic fowl relationships: A use of DNA fingerprinting. World's Poultry Science Journal 48: 147-155. Smyth, J.R. (1990): Genetics of plumage, skin and eye pigmentation in chickens. In: Poultry breeding and genetics (Ed.: Crawford, R.D.). Elsevier, Amsterdam. Pp. 109-167. Zeuner, F.E. (1963): A history of domesticated animals. Harper and Row Publishers, New York Pp. 560. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002 223 THE GENUS PONTIA FABRICIUS (LEPIDOPTERA: PIERIDAE) IN THE KUMAON HIMALAYA' Peter Smetacek* 2 (With one text-figure) Key words: Lepidoptera, Pieridae, Pontia, Himalaya, faunal drift The range of Pontia daplidice Linnaeus and Pontia glauconome Klug is extended eastward to the Kumaon Himalaya. An uncertain record of Pontia chloridice Huebner from the same area is noted. The possibility of this faunal drift being Taxonomy In the Indian sub-region, three species are generally assigned to the genus Pontia Fabricius. These are daplidice Linnaeus, chloridice Huebner and glauconome Klug. Pontia is sometimes treated as a sub-genus or synonym of Pieris Schrank (Evans 1932a, Wynter-Blyth 1957). Some authors (Watson and Whalley 1983, Daccordi et al. 1988) include callidice Huebner in Pontia , although Varshney (1993) treats callidice as the type species of the genus Synchloe Huebner. For the purpose of this paper, I have followed Varshney (op. cit.), since this is the most recent work on the subject. Geography The Kumaon Himalaya consists of a section of the Himalayan range, from the low sub-montane tract known as the Bhabar to the trans-Himalayan region, extending between 28° 44’ - 30° 49’ N and 78° 44'-81° 0T E. Broadly speaking, the area consists of three parallel mountain ranges. The outermost range rises steeply above the plains to more than 2,000 m above msl, reaching 2,600 m in some peaks near Nainital. Rainfall is heaviest on the southern slopes of this range, between 1,981 cm and 3,048 cm ‘Accepted March, 2000 2Jones Estate, Bhimtal, Nainital, Uttaranchal 263 136, India. a recent phenomenon is examined. annually. This area receives the major part of its annual precipitation during the southwest monsoon from June to September. Most of the sites mentioned in this paper are situated in this range i.e. Nainital, Bhimtal, Sattal, Naukuchiatal, Ramgarh, Gethia in Kumaon and Mussoorie in Garhwal. Some of the precipitation is in the form of winter snow in Nainital, Ramgarh and Mussoorie, but this is not usual in the other places mentioned. North of this lies the middle range in which Almora, Panuanaula and Binsar are situated. This range is generally lower than the outer range, although it rises in places to nearly 2,600 m above msl. The middle range receives less precipitation and is altogether drier than the outer range. As in the outer range, there is snowfall above 1,600 m in winter and all the three places mentioned above experience snowfall. Further north lies the main Himalayan range, which is too well known to warrant description here. It receives most of its precipitation in the form of snow above 4,000 m. Between 1,400 m and 4,000 m, the precipitation is in the form of rain in summer and snow in winter, while below 1,200 m, snow is not usual even in winter. North of this range lies the trans- Himalayan rain shadow area. Members of the Pontia genus have been recorded from the rain shadow area of Ladakh and Himachal Pradesh, but not of Uttaranchal. 224 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002 PONTIA FABRJCIUS IN THE KUM AON HIMALAYA Distribution Concerning the distribution of the genus Pontia, Varshney (1993) noted that it is a Palaearctic subelement, centred in Pakistan and northwest India, extending to Iran, the Middle East and Asia Minor. Within the Indian sub- region, he gave Baluchistan, Chitral and Punjab in Pakistan and Ladakh in Jammu and Kashmir as the area from where these butterflies have been recorded. Watson and Whalley (1983), however, state that Pontia has the most species in Europe and temperate Asia, with a few known from North Africa. They go on to caution about catalogues of the genus where there are many names, the majority of which are sub-species or forms of daplidice. The known range of P. daplidice is N. Africa, southern Europe to India and Japan (Lewis 1973). Watson and Whalley (op. cit.) omit N. Africa, but include Britain. Within the Indian sub-region, it has been recorded from Baluchistan to Chitral and Murree in Pakistan (Evans 1 932a). Peile (1937) added Peshawar in Pakistan and Wynter-Blyth (1957) added Kashmir to Shipki in the erstwhile state of Bashahr in present day Himachal Pradesh to this range (Fig. 1). I have found P. daplidice to be a common butterfly in Kumaon. It occurs from the outermost range of the foothills to the main Himalayan range. In the foothills, it occurs between 1,200 m and 2,400 m elevation and has been recorded from Sattal (approx. 1,200 m), Bhimtal valley (1,400-1,500 m), Nainital (1,800-2,400 m), Ramgarh (1,800-2,200 m) and Gethia (approx. 1,400 m) in Nainital district and Binsar (2,400 m), Almora (1,600-1,800 m) and between Bhuteshwar and Panuanaula (approx. 1,800 m) in Almora district. In the main range, I found it in the Dhauli Ganga Valley north of Joshimath in Chamoli district, Garhwal at 1,800 m to 2,200 m and there is a record from Khati village (2,500 m) on the route to the Pindari glacier in Bageshwar district, northern Kumaon. The present records extend the known range of this species by about 300 km south- southeast from Shipki, which was its previous limit, to Naukuchiatal and Khati. The present eastern limit of this butterfly’s range in the area is uncertain, but so far I have no records from Pithoragarh district on the border with Nepal. It should be mentioned that there have been no recent surveys in that district. The recorded range of chloridice is from S. Europe to Iran and Mongolia as well as North America (Watson and Whalley op. cit.). Lewis (op. cit.) added Tibet, southwest China and east Siberia to this range. Within the Indian sub- region, it has been recorded from Baluchistan, Chitral and Ladakh according to Evans (1932a) and Peile (op. cit.). Wynter-Blyth (op. cit.) did not mention this taxon, since its known distribution was outside the area covered by his book. Hannyngton (1910) recorded this species from Kumaon at an elevation of 3,650 m in August and September, and noted that it was rare. It is not clear why Evans (op. cit.) and Peile (op. cit.) subsequently overlooked this record, even though Peile included Hannyngton ’s list among the appendices to his book. This matter is discussed further on. The third member of the genus, P. glauconome , is known from east Africa, Arabia, Iran, Baluchistan, Punjab and Chitral in Pakistan, according to Evans (op. cit., 1932b), Peile (op. cit.) and Wynter-Blyth (op. cit.). The latter added Karachi, while Peile added Iraq to this range. Roonwal et al. (1956) reported a specimen of glauconome from Mussoorie in Garhwal, in the collection of the Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun. In addition, I have an extreme dry season form of glauconome recorded at Bhimtal on May 1, 1976, with a forewing length of 20 mm. This record extends the known range by JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002 225 PONTIA FABRIC JUS IN THE KUMAON HIMALAYA 96° V///////////////////A/ 7A w/////mwM 36° 72° 84° -■ 24® 96® Fig. 1: Map indicating the known and extended range of Pontia daplidice 226 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002 PONTIA FABRJC1US IN THE KUMAON HIMALAYA nearly 200 km east-southeast of Mussoorie, its previous eastern limit. On the basis of the abovementioned records, the range of ail three members of the genus from the Indian sub-region is extended to the Kumaon Himalaya. The occurrence of chloridice is a little uncertain, since we have only Hannyngton’s (1910) report to rely on, but the records for daplidice and glauconome are backed by specimens. Habits and Habitat The following account deals only with daplidice. According to Peile (1937), it is on the wing in April, and during September and October near Peshawar and Miriamshah in Pakistan. He found it rare. In Kumaon, it is multivoltine in the outer ranges, on the wing from March to July and in September and October, with stragglers appearing as late as December. In the main range, it appears to be uni- or bivoltine, since it has been found between May and early August, but not before or after. Given that seasons are better defined in the main range than in the outer ranges, and the cold season more severe, it is unlikely that this insect is as prolific there as it is in the outer ranges. Of interest is the fact that it is on the wing even in July and the first few days of August, at the height of the southwest monsoon, in the outer range. On the wing, it is often very similar to Artogeia canidia Sparrman (Pieridae), which occurs at the same places and times as daplidice. Generally, however, the flight is rapid, rather swifter than canidia and nearer the ground. It is fond of fields, sunny paths and ridges. I have never found it within shady forests. Rather, it keeps to the open parts and will rise above the level of the trees to cross the shady parts, although it generally keeps low in the open. Both sexes settle frequently on the low growing flowers of Compositae ( Senecio Linn., Erigeron bellidioides (Buch. Ham., ex D. Don) Benth. ex C.B. Clarke), as well as to bask with wings closed or partially open on low plants or on the ground. I have not met them visiting water or damp mud. Breeding This account deals only with daplidice. The larvae of the nominate subspecies are known to feed on species of Cruciferae (Friedrich 1 983). The subspecies moorei Roeber does not appear to have been actually bred in India until now. Females of daplidice were observed ovipositing on immature seeds and leaves of Lepidium virginicum Linn. (Cruciferae). The plants with the ova were placed in a breeding box, where the larvae emerged within a week, but did not survive. Subsequently, second instar and third instar larvae were located on plants of the same species, and successfully bred through. One individual pupated on June 3, 1998 and emerged on June 8, 1998. Others pupated for more or less the same period, but it is not possible to give exact dates since they were kept together. The larval stage probably lasts a fortnight or three weeks, giving a time frame of a brood a month or every five weeks during summer in the outer ranges. This means that in the outer ranges, there is a more or less continuous succession of broods during spring and summer. The host plant, Lepidium virginicum (Virginia Peppergrass; Bird’s Pepper; Virginia Pepperweed) is a native of North America and is widespread from the Atlantic coast to the Rocky Mountains, West Indies, Mexico, Central and South America. It has been introduced to India, most probably as part of the U.S. grain shipments during the 1950s and 1960s. Maheshwari and Paul (1973) reported its spread to the Netarhat Plateau, Bihar. Unfortunately, there is no record of when this weed reached Kumaon. Gupta (1968) did not mention it. Gupta (1968) mentioned JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002 227 PONTIA FABRICIUS IN THE KUMAON HIMALAYA Lepidium ruderale Linn., which Maheshwari and Paul (1973) note is often misapplied to L. virginicum in Indian herbaria. Since L. ruderale is also cultivated, it is unlikely that Gupta (op. cit.) misidentified it. Today, L. virginicum is naturalised in different parts of India and is frequently abundant in degraded areas, roadside swards, vacant lots, fallow fields and neglected lawns. In Kumaon, it germinates in early spring and dies down by September. Seasonal Variation Peile (1937) noted that daplidice varies much with the season. Individuals recorded in Kumaon display a little seasonal variation, in that the apical dark area on the forewing recto is relatively lighter and the individuals large in the spring brood(s), i.e. from March to May. Individuals recorded in June are small and heavily marked on the forewing recto , while the post-monsoon brood from September and October is of the same size as the spring brood and heavily marked, the white sub-marginal spots on the forewing recto often greatly reduced, with some absent. The green markings on the verso surface do not vary much, either individually or seasonally. The individual of glauconome was recorded in May, the height of the dry season. It is a typical dry season form of the species, with the green markings on the verso surface almost obsolete, but the veins on the hindwing verso prominently yellow. Discussion Pontia daplidice is a known migrant, individuals crossing to Britain from the European mainland (Watson and Whalley 1983), from low elevation to high elevation in erstwhile Czechoslovakia (Kudrna 1974a) and from the Asian mainland to Japan (Kudrna 1974b). Mackinnon and de Niceville (1897) did not find daplidice in Mussoorie or the Dun Valley, and Hannyngton (1910) did not find it in Kumaon although both these lists are very nearly complete. R.C. Busher, who collected butterflies around Nainital and compiled an unpublished list of local butterflies in 1918 (ms in author’s possession), including interesting species in the Vanrennen collection, did not include daplidice. Nor does it find mention in notes compiled by my father, the late Fred Smetacek Sr., from the Nainital, Bhimtal and Naukuchiatal area during 1949 and 1950. It first appears in notes compiled in 1961, with what appears to be the first pair recorded from Sattal (1,200 m) near Bhimtal on April 21, 1961, by my father. The notes state “Not rare at Sattal and Nainital in late April and May 1961. Rarer in 1962. Also flies during September and October. Also captured at Bhimtal on August 27, 1964.” (Victor Smetacek’s notes). It appears probable that, rather than having been overlooked, this species colonised the outer ranges of Kumaon between 1950 and 1961. Of interest is the record of P. daplidice by Atkinson (1882) from the main Himalayan range between the Tons and Sarda rivers, i.e. the present state of Uttaranchal. He stated that his list is based, with few exceptions, on actual specimens collected by him or others. It is unclear why Hannyngton (op. cit.) and other authors overlooked this record, unless the specimen was subsequently identified as chloridice, which is similar. This would explain the presence of daplidice and absence of chloridice from Atkinson’s list and the presence of chloridice and absence of daplidice from Hannyngton ’s list. Whatever the truth of these surmises, they are to do with the main Himalayan range and do not alter the fact that the colonisation of the middle and outermost ranges of the Himalaya in Kumaon by daplidice appears to be recent. 228 JOURNAL > BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002 PONTIA FABR1C1US IN THE KUMAON HIMALAYA Added to this, Atkinson’s ( 1 882) list is not impeccable, and among numerous misidentifications may be cited Rhapicera satricus Doub. for what was probably Rhapicera moorei Butler; Vanessa urticae Linn, for Aglais cashmirensis Koll. and “ Argynnis ” rudra Moore which does not occur west of Meghalaya. During the winter of 1998-1999, the rains were very meagre. As a result, spring was very dry and many annuals failed to germinate. Among these was Lepidium virginicum which appeared only in irrigated valleys, but not at all in the waste ground and roadside swards all over Nainital district. The population of Pontia daplidice tumbled more or less correspondingly after the first brood, so that in late May I saw none and in June only a single freshly emerged female. Normally, in the c. 25 km between Bhimtal and Gethia or Nainital, it was possible to see at least a dozen individuals every day during the season. In the meantime, the population of Artogeia canidia, another Lepidium virginicum feeder, was not affected, so canidia probably feeds on something else in addition to L. virginicum . This is not unusual, as canidia has been known from Kumaon since butterfly records began. Varshney (1 993) recorded seeds of Reseda (Resedaceae), Turritis , Sisymbrium , Sinapis and Alyssum (all Cruciferae) as larval host plants of the genus, evidently non-Indian records. Gupta (1968) recorded species of Turritis Linn, and Arabidopsis Schur. from Nainital. However, daplidice does not appear to feed on these plants here, judging by its population decline corresponding with the decline of Lepidium virginicum. It is an observed fact that the population of daplidice declined soon after the decline of L. virginicum and subsequently both taxa recovered. In July 1999, although the southwest monsoon was in progress, Lepidium virginicum had not germinated in areas where it was common the previous year, and it was only to be found on a limited scale in irrigated areas. In 2000, the inevitable re-colonisation of degraded areas by this weed was followed by a corresponding increase in the daplidice population, so that by 2002, daplidice was as common as it was prior to 1999. Pontia daplidice moorei Roeber is distinguished from the nominate subspecies by being a very large form. The population of daplidice from Kumaon is assigned to moorei on the basis of the relatively large size of the majority of individuals and the contiguous distribution of the two populations. Peile (1937) collected a female with a wing expanse of 65 mm at Peshawar (Pakistan), now in the collection of the Natural History Museum, London, U.K. Hence, he gave the expanse of this subspecies as 45 to 65 mm; while Wynter-Blyth (1957), whose work was published twenty years later than Peile’s, followed Evans (op. cit.) in assigning 45 to 50 mm. Specimens from Kumaon have a wing expanse up to 58 mm. One specimen taken in June has an expanse of 42 mm. Therefore, the wing expanse of this subspecies ought to be from 42 to 65 mm. The records of P. glauconome from Mussoorie and Bhimtal are quite certainly stragglers from further west, but it is uncertain how much further west. The question is, is there a breeding population of glauconome in the plains of western India, or are the two specimens recorded from the known populations now in Pakistan? Both possibilities are equally likely, since this is a genus of strong fliers and migrants. Similarly, the breeding or migrant status of P. chloridice in the Kumaon and Garhwal Himalaya requires clarification. The present records of glauconome are of interest since it has a rather restricted distribution in this area compared with other members of the genus. It occurs from east Africa to Chitral and Karachi in Pakistan. Given that it is capable of travelling as far east as Kumaon, its comparatively restricted distribution may be JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002 229 PONTIA FABRJCJUS IN THE KUMAON HIMALAYA attributed to its inability to breed in areas which are not completely favourable. In other words, it is not as resilient a species as the other members of the genus, although individuals are capable of travelling a considerable distance. Unlike the other two members of the genus, glauconome is a low elevation butterfly that has colonised the warm, dry and low areas of Pakistan and other parts of its range, but seems to be unable to tolerate wetter regions such as Kumaon. P. daplidice , on the other hand, has given a new dimension to generic preferences by colonising and thriving in the heavy rainfall areas of Kumaon, which are well within the sub- tropical monsoon zone. Almost all the Lepidoptera that appear to have colonised or migrated to Kumaon recently belong to the Indo-Malayan fauna (Smetacek 1994, 1995, 2001, unpublished data). The colonisation of the outer ranges of Kumaon by daplidice is of interest, since it is generally considered a Palaearctic taxon. This extension goes against the apparent trend, where the Central and Western Himalaya are getting warmer and wetter (Myers 1985) and consequently more conducive to colonisation by Indo-Malayan species (Smetacek 1994). Wynter-Blyth (1957) noted that daplidice is primarily an inhabitant of the high inner hills, common at high altitude. In my experience, it is common at moderate elevation, i.e. between 1,200 m to 2,500 m, and less so above. As a matter of fact, I have never found it above 3,000 m in Kumaon or Garhwal. Also, I have found it to be commoner in the outer range than in the main Himalayan range. In the main range, I have found it in open river valleys near cultivation, rather than on hillsides or ridges at high elevation. Being a strong flier and quite a migrant, it might occasionally be found at high elevation like Catopsilia pomona Fabricius (Smetacek 1993), but it seems generally that above the tree line it is merely a straggler. Conclusion From the above account, it is evident that the distribution of two members of the genus Pontia, i.e. daplidice and glauconome , has extended to the Kumaon Himalaya, the former as a colonist and the latter as a straggling migrant. The colonisation of this area by daplidice appears to be quite recent, probably in the middle of the 20th century. It seems that the major factor behind its increased range is the spread of the North American plant, Lepidium virginicum , which was introduced to India, probably in grain shipments in the post- Independence period. P. daplidice has been bred on this plant in Kumaon, and in 1999, populations of daplidice in the area fell sharply at the same time as this plant failed to germinate in places where it was common, mainly due to meagre winter rains. It is interesting that the lack of a suitable larval host plant rather than a climatic factor appears to have restricted the distribution of daplidice to the Palaearctic Region. The self-introduction of a suitable host plant has resulted in the colonisation by daplidice of Kumaon, which is known as the mixing zone between the Palaearctic and Indo-Malayan faunas. The possibility of it extending its distribution further east in the coming years cannot be ruled out. In the present context of global warming, the extension of range of a typically Palaearctic genus into the transitional zone represented by Kumaon is unusual. Acknowledgements I am grateful to Professor Y.P.S. Pangtey of Thakur D.S.B. Constituent College, Nainital, for kindly identifying the larval host plant of P. daplidice , as well as to the editor and anonymous referees for their valuable suggestions. 230 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002 PONTIA FABRJC1US IN THE KUMAON HIMALAYA Refer Atkinson, E.T. ( 1 882): Gazetteer of the Himalayan Districts of the NW Provinces of India, Vol. 3, Chapter 2. Government Press, Allahabad. Pp. 87-266. Daccordi, M., P. Triberti & A. Zanetti (1988): The Macdonald Encyclopedia of Butterflies and Moths, (English edn.), Macdonald & Co., London & Sydney. Pp. 1-383. Evans, W.H. (1932a): The Identification of Indian Butterflies. 2nd Edn. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay. Pp. 1-454, 32 pi. Evans, W.H. (1932b): The Butterflies of Baluchistan. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 36: 1 96-209. Friedrich, E. (1983): Handbuch der Schmetterlingszucht: Europ. Arten. Kosmos Verlag, Stuttgart. Pp. 176. Gupta, R.K. (1968): Flora Nainitalensis. Navyug Traders, New Delhi. Pp. 489 + 40. Hannyngton, F. (1910): The Butterflies of Kumaon. J. Bombay not. Hist. Soc. 20: 130-142; 361-372; 871-872.’ Kudrna, O. ( 1 974a): A Distribution List of Butterflies of Czechoslovakia. Entom. Gaz. 25: 161-177. Kudrna, O. (1974b): An Annotated List of Japanese Butterflies. Atlanta B5 (2/3): 92-120. Lewis, H.L. (1973): Butterflies of the World. Harrap, London. Pp. 312, 208 pi. Mackinnon, P.W. & L. de Niceville (1 897-98): Butterflies from Mussoorie and the Dun Valley. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. II: 205-221; 368-389; 585-623. Maheshwari, J.K. & S.R. Paul (1973): Occurrence of Lepidium virginicum Linn, in Netarhat Plateau (Bihar). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 70: 575-576, 1 plate. Myers, N. (Ed.) (1985): The Gaia Atlas of Planet Management. Pan Books. London & Sydney. Pp. 272. ENCES Peile, H.D. ( 1 937): A Guide to Collecting Butterflies of India. Staples Press, London. Pp. xiv + 312, 25 pi. Roonwal, M.L., R.N. Mathur, (late) G.D. Bhasin, P.N. Chatterjee, P.K. Sen-Sarma, Balwant Singh, Avinash Chandra, R.S. Thapa & Kumar Krishna (1963): A Systematic Catalogue of the Main Identified Entomological Collection at the Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun. Ind. For. Leaf. 121 (4) Ent. Part 31 (Lepid.): 1295-1395. Smetacek, P. (1993): Catopsilia pomona Fab. (Lepidoptera: Pieridae) at High Elevation in the Uttar Pradesh Himalaya. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 90: 527-528. Smetacek, P. ( 1 994): An Annotated List of the Hawkmoths (Lepidoptera: Sphingidae) of Kumaon, N. India: A Probable Case of Faunal Drift. Rec. zool. Surv. Ind., Occ. Paper 156: 1-55. Smetacek, P. ( 1 995): A New Altitudinal and Range Record for the Copper Flash Butterfly Rapala pheretimus Hew. (Lycaenidae). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 92: 127-128. Smetacek, P. (2001): Resolution of the Controversial Western Limit of the Range of Delias acalis Godart (Lepidoptera: Pieridae). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 98: 298-300. Varshney, R.K. (1993): Index Rhopalocera Indica, Part HI (Lepidoptera: Papilionidae, Pieridae, Danaidae). Oriental Ins. 27: 347-372. Watson, A. & P.E.S. Whalley (1983): Dictionary of Butterflies and Moths in Colour. Peerage Books. London. Pp. 296 + pi. Wynter-Blyth, M.A. (1957): Butterflies of the Indian Region. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay. Pp. xx + 523, 72 pi. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 99(2), AUG. 2002 231 A COLLECTION OF FRULLANIA FROM NILGIRI WITH F DENSILOBA ST. AS A NEW RECORD FOR INDIA1 S.C. Srivastava and Afroz Alam2 ( With two text-figures ) Key words: Bryophyta, Hepaticae, Jungermanniales, Jubulaceae, Frullania densiloba Frullania densiloba St. is reported for the first time, not only from India, but also from Tropical Asia, along with the other species of Frullania distributed in the Nilgiri hill ranges. A key to segregate various species of Frullania from Nilgiri is provided. The present communication is based exclusively on a collection of Frullania from the Nilgiri hill ranges to evaluate the frequency and variety of the genus in this area. Frullania shows a very high level of structural diversity and often becomes a puzzle in species determination. Apart from its morphological diversity, each species can be recognized by its typical lobule, presence and absence of ocelli, perianth morphology, leaf lobe shape and under- leaves. While working on the collection of the genus from the Nilgiris, an interesting ocellate species of Frullania other than Frullania tamarisci , a well-known ocellate species from Nilgiri and other regions of South India was in hand. On critical study, this plant showed very close resemblance to Frullania densiloba St., a species distributed in Eastern Asiatic temperate region (including Japan, Ryukyu, Formosa, Quelpart, Botel Tobago) (Kamimura 1961) and clearly different from Frullania tamarisci. The discovery of F. densiloba from the Nilgiris thus constitutes a new record, not only from India but also from Tropical Asia. A key to segregate various species of Frullania of the Nilgiris is provided along with an illustrated morpho-taxonomic account of F. densiloba . 'Accepted January, 2002 2Department of Botany, University of Lucknow, Lucknow 226 007, Uttar Pradesh, India. Key to the Species 1. Plant dioecious 2 — Plant monoecious 3 2. Leaf-lobes ocellate (with ocelli) ...1 4 — Leaf-lobes non-ocellate (without ocelli) 5 3 . Leaf-lobule helmet shaped, perianth 4-5 keeled F. wallichiana — Leaf-lobule large, cucullate to subcucullate, perianth usually 4 keeled F. neurota 4. Leaf-lobes acute to acuminate, rarely obtuse to rounded, ocelli in 1-2 rows, 10-20 cells long, lobule saccate, subparallel with the stem and not inclined, slightly apart from the stem, female inflorescence terminal on short lateral branches, underleaves bifid, much wider than the stem, sinus obtuse F tamarisci 4. Leaf-lobes slightly concave, ovate, with rounded apex, ocelli in a single row, less than 10 cells long, lobule clavate, almost parallel with the stem and inclined towards the stem, female inflorescence terminal on a leading branch, underleaves bifid, as wide as stem or slightly wider than the stem, sinus acute F densiloba 5. Leaf-lobes squarrose F. squarrosa — Leaf-lobes ovate with obtuse or rounded apex 6 6. Rostrum of leaf-lobule elongated which forms a piliferous beak F acutiloba — Leaf-lobules usually without rostrum 7 7. Leaf-lobules variable in shape, explanate to saccate, perianth ovoid, 5 keeled F. muscicola — Leaf-lobules campanulate, perianth pyriform, usually 4 keeled F campanulata 232 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002 COLLECTION OF FRULLANI A FROM NILGIRI Frullania dens Hob a St. Species Hepaticarum IV: 549-550 (1909); Kamimura, Jour. Hatton Bot. Lab. No. 24: 69-73 (1961). Plants small, 10.3-13.6 mm in length, brownish, having characteristic Frullania-typQ branching, stem rounded (in a cross section), 0.06-0.07 mm in diameter, differentiated into distinct cortical and medullary zone, cortical cells 6. 3-7. 6 x 3. 1-3.8 pm, medullary cells 22.3-26.6 x 13.4-15.2 pm and are relatively larger than cortical cells. Leaves complicate Ipilobed, leaf lobe concave, ovate with somewhat rounded apex, contiguous to loosely imbricate, 0.28-0.32 mm long and 0.20-0.24 mm wide, apical cells of lobe 11.4-15.2 x 7.6-11.4 pm, median and basal cells 15.2-22.8 x 7.8-11.4 pm with thickened walls, trigones not clear, ocelli 4-8 in number, uniseriate to scattered, 22.8-26.6 x 19.0-21.3 pm, oil bodies not seen. Leaf-lobules almost parallel with the stem and about half of its own width covering the stem (i.e. slightly inclined towards the stem), clavate, 0.15-0.16 mm long and 0.08-0.11 mm wide, mouth rounded, stylus 4-celled, 25.3-28.2 pm long and 11.3-15.2 pm wide. Underleaves cauline, distant, transversely inserted, oblong, lateral margin almost parallel to the stem, 0.10- 0.12 mm long and 0.068-0.070 mm wide, apex bilobed up to half of its length, sinus acute. Dioecious (Figs 1, 2). Male inflorescence nearly globose on short lateral branches, bracteoles restricted to the base of inflorescence, bracts in 2-3 pairs, ovate, 0.52 mm long and 0.44 mm wide, apical cells of bract 7.5-17.5 x 6.25- 12.5 pm, median and basal cells 7.5-12.5 x 12.5- 22.5 pm, male bracteoles bilobed 157.2-162.5 pm long and 51-55 pm wide. Female inflorescence terminal, bracts three, bract lobe ovate to oblong with conspicuous dentitions at margin, 0.57 mm long and 0.32 mm wide, at fully stretched condition, 0.77 mm long and 0.55 mm wide, bracteoles bilobed to about half of its length, sinus narrow, two or three in number, 0.49 mm long and 0.24 mm wide, at fully stretched condition 0.53 mm long and 0.33 mm wide, dentate. Perianth almost one fourth to half emergent, 3. 5-3. 9 mm long and 1.64-1.76 mm wide, obovate, 3-keeled (2 lateral and 1 ventral), apex rounded with a distinct rostrum. Distribution and Ecology: Corticolous epiphyte, being reported for the first time from South India: Tamil Nadu: Nilgiri: Ootacamund, Dodabetta peak. Grows with Plagiochila sp., Drepanolejeunea sp., Leucolejeunea sp., Radula sp., Frullania tamarisci between 2,300-2,600 m, temperature ranging between 10-25 °C, with annual rainfall up to 400 cm. Range: Japan, Quelpart, Ryukyu, Formosa, Botel Tobago, India. Specimens examined: India: Tamil Nadu: Nilgiri: Ootacamund: Dodabetta, Leg.: P.K. Verma and A. Alam, Det.: S.C. Srivastava and A. Alam. LWU- 13453/2001, 13477/2001. The following species of Frullania have been observed along with F. densiloba St. in the collection from Nilgiris. (See Parihar et al. 1 994, Nath and Asthana 1998). All these species listed below were reported earlier from Sikkim Himalayas (Mitten 1861) except F campanulata (Chopra 1938) and F. acutiloba (Mitten 1861) which were reported from South India. 1 . Frullania tamarisci (L.) Dum. Sde. Lac. in Miquel, Ann. Mus. Lugd- Batavi 1:313(1 836). Basionym: Jungermannia tamarisci L., Sp. PI. 1134 (1753). Characteristics of species: Dioecious, with saccate lobule, ocelli in 1-2 rows, 10-20 cells Song, rarely scattered, and 3 keeled perianth. Distribution and Ecology: Very common in Nilgiri hills and elsewhere, South India: Tamil Nadu: Nilgiri: Ootacamund: Dodabetta peak, Government Botanical Garden, Pykara, Avalanche. Grows on tree bark associated with Plagiochila sp., Leucolejeunea sp., Lophocolea sp., Frullania neurota , F. squarrosa and F. densiloba. Range: Japan, Korea, China, Formosa, Philippines, India, Ceylon. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2). AUG. 2002 233 COLLECTION OF FRULLANIA FROM NILGIRI Fig. 1: Fmllania densiloba St., A. Male plant (dorsal view), B. Male plant (ventral view), C. T.S. of stem, D-H. Leaf-lobes with lobules, I. Leaf-lobe with ocelli, J. Apical cells of leaf-lobe, K. Median cells of leaf-lobe, L. Basal cells of leaf-lobe, M. Leaf-lobule with stylus, N. Cells of lobule, O-Q. Underleaves, R. Underleaf (cellular) 234 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002 COLLECTION OF FRULLANIA FROM NILGIRI Specimens examined: India: Tamil Nadu: Nilgiri: Ootacamund: Dodabetta: LWU - 6863/ 82, 6873/82, 6885/82, 6889/82, 6892/82, 6896- 97/82, 6900-01/82, 6903/82, 6934/82, 6938/82, 6946/82, 6949/82, 6952-55/82, 6957-58/82, 6969/82; 12432-33/2000, 12462/2000, 13451/ 01, 13455/01, 13464/01, 13480-81/01, 13484/ 01; Government Botanical Garden: LWU-6974/ 82; Pykara: LWU- 12672/2000, 12704/2000, 12748/2000; Avalanche: LWU-12544/2000, 12553/2000. 2. Frullania wallichiana Mitt. Proc. Linn. Soc. 5. 118(1861) Characteristics of species: Monoecious, with helmet shaped, large lobule and 4-5 keeled cylindrical perianth. Distribution and Ecology: South India: Tamil Nadu: Nilgiri: Pykara, Krutukuli. Plants grow on bark of trees with Ptychanthus striatus and Lejeunea sp. Range: Himalayas, India, Sri Lanka, Sumatra, Java, Philippines, Africa, Central and South America, New Guinea. Specimens examined: India: Tamil Nadu: Nilgiri: Pykara: LWU- 12607/2000, 12675/2000, 12691-92/2000, 12699/2000, 12714/2000, 12715/2000, 12722/2000, 12755-58/2000, 12760/2000, 12761/2000; Krutukuli: LWU- 13709/2001. 3. Frullania neurola Tayl. J. Bot. 5: 400 (1846) Characteristics of species: Monoecious, lobules large, cucullate or subcucullate, without beak, perianth 4 keeled. Distribution and Ecology: South India: Tamil Nadu: Nilgiri: Ootacamund: Dodabetta, Government Botanical Garden, Soil and Water Conservation Institute (SWCI) Road, Krutukuli, Pykara, Avalanche. Grows on tree bark in association with Radula sp., Lophocolea sp., Frullania campanulata, Frullania tamarisci , and Frullania wallichiana . Range: Widely distributed in tropical Asia, Hawaii, Mexico, India. Specimens examined: India: Tamil Nadu: Nilgiri: Ootacamund: Dodabetta: LWU-6874/82, 6905/82, 6916/82, 6921/82, 6953/82, 6962/82, 6963/82, 6964/82; 12411/2000, 12414/2000, 12422/2000, 12424/2000, 12440/2000, 12459/ 2000, 12479/2000, 12487-88/2000, 13455/2001, 13464/2001, 13480-84/2001, 13486/2001; Government Botanical Garden: LWU-6974/82, 6987/82, 6988/82, 6989/82, 6991/82, 12791/ 2000, 12796/2000, 12803/2000. Pykara: 12667/ 2000, 12672/2000, 12677/2000, 12678/2000, 12683/2000, 12684/2000, 12689/2000, 12692/ 2000, 12693/2000, 12700/2000, 12714/2000, 12758/2000, 12761/2000, 12769/2000, 12783/ 2000; Avalanche: 12568/2000, 12590/2000, 12613/2000, 12623/2000, 12665/2000; Soil and Water Conservation Institute (SWCI) Road: 13709/2001. Krutukuli: 13701/2001, 13702/ 2001, 13704/2001, 13705-06/2001, 13712/2001, 13714/2001, 13715/2001, 13724/2001, 13730/ 2001. 4. Frullania squarrosa (R., Bl. et Nees) Dum. Rec, d’obs 13(1835) Basionym: Jungermannia squarrosa R., Bl. e/Nees Nova Acta Acad. Caes. Leop. Carol. 12:219 (1824) Characteristics of species: Dioecious, leaves squarrose, saccate, with helmet-shaped leaf lobules variable in size and 3-keeled perianth. Distribution and Ecology: South India: Tamil Nadu: Nilgiri: Ootacamund: Dodabetta, Government Botanical Garden, Soil and Water Conservation Institute (SWCI) Road, Pykara, Avalanche, Krutukuli. Plants grow on soil as well as tree bark in association with Lophocolea sp., and Lejeunea sp. Range: Widely distributed in warm- temperate regions of the world. Specimens examined: India: Tamil Nadu: Nilgiri: Ootacamund: Dodabetta: LWU-6885/82, 6890/82; 13464/01. Government Botanical Garden: LWU-12803/2000; Pykara: LWU- 12758/2000, 12759/2000; Avalanche: LWU- JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002 235 COLLECTION OF FRULLANIA FROMNILGIRI Fig. 2: Frullania densiloba St., A. Female plant (Ventral view), B1 . Male bracts, C. Apical cells of male bract, D. Median cells of male bract, E, 2. Male bracteoles, F. Apical cells of male bracteole, G. Median-basal cells of male bracteole, H. Female bract. I. Female bract (stretched), J. Apical cells of female bract, K. Median cells of female bract, L. Basal cells of female bract, M . Female bracteoles, N. Apical cells of female bracteoles, O. Median cells of female bracteole, P. Basal cells of female bracteole, Q . T.S. of perianth (Apical portion), R. T.S. of perianth (Middle portion), S. T.S. of perianth (Basal portion), T. L.S. of perianth, U. Apical cells of perianth, V. Median cells of perianth, W. Basal cells of perianth 236 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002 COLLECTION OF FRULLANIA FROMNILGIRI 12595/2000; Krutukuli: LWU-13701/2001 , 13707/2001, 13710/2001, 13711/2001. 5. Frullania muscicola St., Hedwigia 33: 146(1894) Characteristics of species: Dioecious, leaf lobule saccate with 5 to 6 keeled perianth. Distribution and Ecology: South India: Tamil Nadu: Nilgiri: Ootacamund Dodabetta, Government Botanical Garden, Pykara, Avalanche, Krutukuli. Plants grow on tree bark and also on soil with Plagiochila sp., Radula sp., Lophocolea sp., Lejeunea sp., Frullania squarrosa, and F. tamarisci. Range: China, Himalayas, India. Specimens examined: India, Tamil Nadu: Nilgiri: Ootacamund: Dodabetta: LWU-6880/82, 6903/82, 6923/82, 6953/82, 6960/82, Government Botanical Garden: LWU-6978/82, 6994/82, 7029/82, 7035/82; Pykara: LWU- 12686/2000, 12727/2000, 12748/2000, 12760/ 2000; Avalanche: LWU- 12644/2000; Krutukuli: LWU-1371 1/2001. 6. Frullania campanulata Sde. Lac. Nederi. Kruidk. Arch 3: 422(1854). Characteristics of Species: Dioecious, leaf lobule campanulate, longer than broad, perianth 4-keeled, with smooth surface. Distribution and Ecology: South India: Tamil Nadu: Nilgiri: Ootacamund: Dodabetta, Government Botanical Garden, Soil and Water Conservation Institute (SWCI) Road, Pykara, Avalanche. Epiphyte, grows in association with Microlejeunea sp. Radula sp., Frullania neurota , Frullania tamarisci , Metzgeria sp., and Plagiochila sp. Range: Sumatra, Java, India. Specimens examined: India, Tamil Nadu: Nilgiri: Ootacamund: Dodabetta: LWU-6873/82, 6888/82, 6909/82, 6917/82, 6930/82, 6954/82, 6962/82, 6963-64/82; 12411/2000, 12414/2000, 12422/2000, 12424/2000, 12440/2000, 12459/ 2000, 12479/2000, 12487/2000, 12488/2000, Government Botanical Garden: 6987/82, 6988/ 82, 6989/82; Pykara: LWU- 12668/2000, 12696/ 2000, 12697/2000, 12721/2000, 12744/2000, 12750/2000, 12760/2000, 12764/2000; Avalanche: LWU-12571/2000, Soil and Water Conservation Institute (SWCI) Road: LWU- 12379/2000, 12388/2000, 13701/2001, 13711/ 2001; Theetukal: LWU- 137 14/2001. 7. Frullania acutiloba Mitt., Proc. Linn. Soc. 5: 120(1861). Characteristics of species: Dioecious, leaf lobule explanate to helmet-shaped, large with piliferous beak, perianth 3-keeled. Distribution and Ecology: South India: Tamil Nadu: Nilgiri: Ootacamund: Dodabetta, Government Botanical Garden, Theetukal. Epiphyte, associated with Cheilolejeunea sp., Radula sp., Metzgeria sp., Frullania tamarisci and F squarrosa. Range: India, Ceylon, Java. Specimens examined: India, Tamil Nadu: Nilgiri: Ootacamund: Dodabetta: LWU-6934/82, 6952/82, Government Botanical Garden: LWU- 12808/2000; Theetukal: LWU-1 3720/01, 13721/ 01, 13722/01, 13724/01, 13726/01. Acknowledgements Financial assistance from the Department of Environment and Forests, Govt of India, New Delhi is gratefully acknowledged. References Chopra, R.S. (1938): Notes on Indian Hepatics, I. Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. Ser. B-7 : 239-251. Kamimura, M. (1961): Monograph of Japanese Frullaniaceae. Journ. HattoriBot. Lab. 24: 1-109. Mitten, W. (1861):. Hepaticae Indiae Orientialis, an enumeration of Hepaticae of East Indies. J. Proc. Linn. Soc. Bot. 5: 87-108. Nath, V. & A.K. Asthana (1998): Diversity and distribution of genus Frullania Raddi in South India. Journ. Hattori Bot. Lab. 85: 63-82. Parihar, N.S., N. Katiyar & B. Lal (1994): Hepatics and Anthocerotes of India. A new annotated checklist. Central Book Depot, Allahabad, pp. 1-106. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002 237 DEBARKING OF TEAK TECTONA GRANDIS LINN. F. BY GAUR BOS GAURUS H. SMITH DURING SUMMER IN A TROPICAL DRY DECIDUOUS HABITAT OF CENTRAL INDIA1 M.K.S. Pasha, G. Areendran, K. Sankar and Qamar Qureshi2 Key words: Food habits, debarking, gaur, Bos gaurus , Madhya Pradesh, teak, Tectona grandis, bark feeding Debarking of teak trees Tectona grandis Linn. f. by gaur Bos gaurus H. Smith was studied during the summer of 1996 in the Pench Tiger Reserve, Madhya Pradesh. Seven one-hectare vegetation plots were sampled within the summer ranging areas of the gaur to quantity and determine the extent of debarking. Of the sampled trees, 39% were debarked, 73% of which had low level of debarking. The teak trees of different girth classes were not debarked in proportion to their availability. No mortality was observed amongst the debarked trees. A maximum of 26.6% crude protein was recorded from the bark samples. Amongst the minerals found in the teak bark, calcium v/as the major constituent, followed by sodium, iron, manganese and copper. Of the food plants eaten by the gaur, teak bark was consumed most (14%). The moisture content in the teak bark varied from 25 to 80%. Consumption of the high protein, calcium- and potassium-rich teak bark would be beneficial to the gaur especially during the dry months when food resources are limited. Further analysis of the bark samples of teak and other food plants of the gaur, for secondary compounds and nutritional quality, would enable a better understanding of the debarking behaviour of the gaur. Introduction The selection of food plants by herbivores could be due to the presence of soluble carbohydrates, proteins, plant fibre, minerals, vitamins, secondary compounds and organic acids (Westoby 1978). To obtain these nutrients, the animals consume different parts of the plants iike leaves, twigs, roots, floral parts and bark. Bark feeding is a well-known phenomenon among groups of mammals such as rodents, lagomorphs, ungulates, proboscides and primates (Curtis 1941, McKay 1973, Laws et al. 1975, Vancuylenberg 1977, Sullivan and Sullivan 1982, Prior 1984, Kenward and Parish 1986, Borges 1989, Sukumar 1989, Joshua 1992, Sharma and Prasad 1992, and Khan et al. 1994). The existing information on the debarking habits of gaur {Bos gaurus) is so far mainly anecdotal. The gaur is known to feed on the bark 'Accepted December, 2001 2Wildlife Institute oflndia, P.O. Box 1 8, Chandrabani, Dehra Dun 248 001 , Uttaranchal, India. of Adina cor difolia (Brander 1923, Schaller 1967), Holarrhena antidysentrica (Ogilive 1954), Tectona grandis (Ranjitsinh 1997) and Wendlandia natoniana (Ogilive 1954). Debarking of teak by gaur was studied between April and June 1996 in the Pench Tiger Reserve (PTR), Madhya Pradesh. Only teak trees were debarked by gaur and debarking of teak by other wild ungulates in the study area was not observed. Study Area Pench Tiger Reserve, PTR, (78° 55' to 79° 35' E and 21° 8' to 22° N) lies in the southern lower reaches of the Satpura hill range in the southwestern region of Madhya Pradesh. The Reserve with a total area of 757.85 sq. km comprises a wildlife sanctuary, national park and reserved forests. In addition to gaur, the wild ungulates found in PTR are chital (Axis axis), sambar ( Cervus unicolor ), nilgai ( Boselaphus 238 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002 DEBARKING OF TEAK BYGAUR tragocamelus ), barking deer ( Muntiacus muntjac ), chowsingha ( Tetraceros quadricornis ), chinkara ( Gazella gazella benneti ) and wild pig (Sus scrofa). The predators existing in the area are tiger ( Panthera tigris ), leopard (P. pardus ) and wild dog ( Cuon alpinus). The Pench river flows in a north-south direction, dividing the Park into two almost equal halves. Due to the construction of a hydroelectric dam on the Pench river, 54 sq. km of the low- lying area on either side of the river has been submerged. During the summer months the river dries up, resulting in small water bodies which are vital for the survival of the gaur and other wild animals. Climatically, the area has four seasons: summer (March-June), monsoon (July-August), post monsoon (September-October) and winter (November-February). The temperature ranges from a minimum of -2 °C at the height of winter to a maximum of 49 °C in peak summer. The average annual rainfall is 1,400 mm. The forest cover of the area has been classified as Tropical Dry Deciduous and Tropical Moist Deciduous types (Champion and Seth 1968). The dominant vegetation types include teak forest, teak- miscellaneous forest, miscellaneous forest, Butea-Zizyphus mixed woodland, Anogeissus- Boswellia mixed forest, Cliestanthus collinus forest and riverine forest. The terrain is gently undulating and criss-crossed by small streams, most of which are seasonal. The hills have gradual to steep slopes with almost flat tops. The mean altitude is 550 m. Methods Though teak trees were found all over the Tiger Reserve, they were debarked only in the summer ranges of the gaur, close to Pench river in the National Park. Based on a reconnaissance, seven one-hectare plots in an area of 40 sq. km were randomly selected within the summer ranges of the gaur, along the Pench river in the National Park, to quantify debarking. In each one-hectare plot, nine circular plots of 10 m radius at an interval of 25 m were sampled (n = 63) for the following data: (a) Total number of trees of all species and their GBH (girth at breast height). (b) The debarked area of the tree was calculated by taking the average width of the debarked portion at three different points along the debarked strip of the stem and multiplying it with the length of the debarked strip. The product obtained is multiplied with the constant 7i (3.14). In case of two separate portions debarked on the same tree, the area of each was calculated separately and summed to give the total area. (c) The area from the base of the stem to the upper tip of the debarked strip was determined as the area available for debarking. This entire portion of the stem was assumed to be cylindrical. The surface area of this cylinder was calculated to obtain the available area (n dh, where: d = diameter of the stem at breast height, h = height from the ground to the tip of the debarked portion and n = constant 3.14). (d) Extent of debarking (ED) was categorised into three classes, low (< 25% of the available area debarked), medium (25% to 50% of the available area debarked) and high (>50% of the available area debarked) and was calculated using the following formula: Area Utilized ED = x 100 Area Available (e) Height at which debarking occurred from the ground. The sampled teak trees were grouped into eight different girth classes (<21 cm, 21-40 cm, 41-60 cm, 61-80 cm, 81-100 cm, 101-120 cm, 121-140 cm, 141-180 cm) to analyze the utilization pattern of each girth class. To determine the difference in the expected and observed utilization patterns of different teak JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002 239 DEBARKING OF TEAK BY GA UR girth classes, chi-square goodness of fit test (G) was used (White and Garrot 1990). To test the difference in proportionate use and availability for each girth class, 95% simultaneous confidence interval was calculated following Marcum and Loftsgaarden (1980). Student’s t- test (Fowler and Cohen 1986) was used to detect the differences between mean density (trees/ha) of debarked and other food plant (trees) species in the plots sampled. A total of 180 samples of teak bark representing nine girth classes were collected. The fresh weights of bark samples were taken in the field and then oven dried at 60 °C for 24 hours and weighed again. The difference in the fresh and the dry weight were estimated to determine the percent moisture content in the bark. All bark samples were tested for percent crude protein, ash content and calorific value (Allen 1989). Kjeldahl method (Allen 1989) was used to estimate the nitrogen content in the bark. The values of nitrogen expressed as percentage of dry weight were multiplied by a factor of 6.25 to obtain the percent protein (Cunnif 1995). Percent ash was estimated by combustion of a sample of known weight in a muffle furnace at 600 °C for 6 hours. The residue left after the combustion of organic matter in the sample, is the ash content for that species. The calorific value of the bark was estimated to get the gross energy (kcal/g) by igniting them in a Gallenkamp Ballistic Bomb Calorimeter. One bark sample representing the different girth classes was taken for the analysis of the minerals. The dried and ground samples were digested by the Mixed Acid Digestion Method and were analysed for calcium, copper, manganese and iron. Inductive Couple Plasma Emission Spectrophotometer (ICPS) was used for the analysis of the minerals (Allen 1 989). Data on the food habits of gaur was collected by opportunistic sightings. In total, 130 feeding observations were recorded. The food plant species and parts eaten were noted down for each observation. A total of 50 individuals of teak were tagged to monitor the mortality, if any, due to debarking by gaur. Results The teak trees were virtually leafless at the time when debarking was observed. Except calves, individuals of all age groups were observed feeding on the teak bark. Direct feeding observations (n = 130) showed that browse formed a major proportion of the diet of the gaur during summer (grass: browse ratio 1 : 3). A total of 1 1 tree, 3 shrub, 3 climber, 4 grass and 1 herb species were recorded as summer food plants of the gaur (Table 1). Among the plant parts eaten by gaur, teak bark was the most frequent (14%). Table 1 FOOD PLANTS OF GAUR IN PENCH TIGER RESERVE (SUMMER 1996) Plant forms Plant parts % Observations (n=130) Trees Ougenia dalbergioides L 10.0 Tectona grandis B 14.0 Diospyros melanoxylon L 6.0 Bauhinia racemosa L 1.0 Grewia tiliaefolia L, FL 3.0 Flacourtia ramontchii L 1.5 Miliusa velutina L 1.5 Aegle marmelos L, FR 3.0 Bridelia retusa L 6.0 Cordia myxa L 1.5 Zizyphus xylopyra L 2.0 Shrubs Grewia hirsuta L, FL, FR 11.0 Barleria spp. L 1.5 Helicteres isora L 2.0 Climbers Ventilago madraspatana L, FR 2.0 Bauhinia vahlii L 6.0 Acacia pennata L 0.7 Grasses Dendrocalamus strictus L, SD 9.0 Cynodon dactylon L 3.0 Heteropogon contortus L 10.0 Herbs Sida spp. L, FL, FR 2.0 (L = Leaf, FL = Flower, FR = Fruit, SD = Seed, B = Bark) 240 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002 DEBARKING OF TEAKBYGAUR Of the 630 teak trees enumerated during the sampling, 247 were found debarked. The debarking by gaur among the eight girth classes of teak trees showed a significantly different (G=67.3, df=7, p< 0.001) utilization pattern (Table 2). The Simultaneous Confidence Interval identified girth class III (41-60 cm) as preferred, girth class II (21-40 cm) as avoided, and the trees of other girth classes used in proportion to their availability. The mean density (trees/ha) of teak trees was high in debarked plots (Table 3) as compared to plots where debarking was absent (t = 365.4, d.f. = 6 1 , p< 0.000 1 ), whereas the mean density (trees/ ha) of food plants (trees) of gaur in the debarked plots was significantly lower than that in the undebarked plots (t = 540.3, d.f. = 61, p < 0.0001). The height at which gaur debarked the tree varied from 37.4 to 78.8 cm (average 69.2 cm). Of the total teak trees sampled, 39.2 % trees were debarked. The levels of debarking varied between girth classes. Of the total trees debarked (n=247), 73% were in the low, 21% in medium and 6% in high debarking category. The estimated calorific value and the percent ash content in teak bark ranged from 3.1 to 4.3 kcal/gm and 8.8 to 16.4 % respectively. The percent crude protein varied between 7.7 and 26.6 %. The results of the analysis of the minerals in the bark are given in Table 4. The water content among the nine girth classes varied from 25% to 80%. The mean water content estimated was 46.22% (SE ±9.01). Discussion Several arguments have been put forth to explain the probable reason of debarking behaviour in the different species of mammals. The mammals may debark in response to shortage of food resource in an area (MacKinnon 1976), or shortage of mineral and trace elements required to meet their nutritional demand (Allen 1943, Bax and Sheldrik 1963, Croze 1974 and Table 2 PREFERENCE RATING OF DEBARKED TEAK TREES BY GAUR IN PENCH TIGER RESERVE Class ; GBH class P2 Confidence limits R I <21 0.156 0.109 -0.085 P, = P2 0. 178 0 II 21-40 0.580 0.356 0.1 15 P, > P2 0.332 - III 41-60 0.126 0.275 -0.271 P, Q 1 ^ nr m m D on — i rn oo — < m n O'i o <— < O On mi H C/3 U r~~ cn — < cn — m c o c3 q X o C/1 C c nT — ' H <— < NO CN O — 1 OO q o 1 •*— » m no o in r-- cn o £ ■ *-> c/l V— X o C/3 rn cn on C/3 z o Cu ■*— > o o no nr t— • cn m no o "O MN NO — r~~ oo o H cd oo t • On nr rn — q C/3 co r — r— no no mi q Q in iTi ON H DC CN — n CN o 03 s © C _o ■“ ! mi UJ 1 q U q On r- cN On ■ — i I — q 0! a < X 43 o 4/ o On oo nT CN X s +-* - OO NO r-~ m in on q U S Cl, C/3 o o i— o s C/D i CQ n O 'n m > Q s — ^ C/3 OO 00 oo NO nr 43 q 43 •a IT) m m ’d q no oo cn no oo ’$■ q Cl \o NO t — ■ NO NO NO o J o II q w- _43 43 M nr — i "O 00 >i rN m in m no 4—1 z 03 nt NO nr mi oo rn ■a q a (N rn OO — ~ CN i C s ii z r> Cd 2 OO ON M q o 5 o C/l ■*— * m CN On O ^ ! — < nr q — i rn nr H 5 C o £ 3 c/3 — m m *43 > q X q 43 Im Dh J5 4) pL, -a (N NO nr o Z Cl 43 C/3 00 < On •= On 3 % -O 43 Uh c a > o Z ON oo ON a o D. a> C/3 £ c3 § (V) SrH £ s oo i oo I I I I NO oo i m oo m oo i NO nT NO — ' I I OO i i m m> nT i CN —i i rn i i i i i i CO OO I I rn I > i i ■ i ■ I I NO OS nT cN — ' NO I rn nT — ' 1 0s. rn cn CN no NO nr —i rn rn On CO - — cn — NO O — < CN rn NO CN NO cn o t-" CN — < — ' m r-~ on m ^ — ■ 1 NO NO O rn in *— c rn oo oo (N CN I ON -h rn — ' rn i rn m CN CN oo nr nr NO nf NO m — ■< in m CN On (N (N rn I NO I on no m >— « «n rn e'- en nr —< MN oo - M (N m r— CN — < C3 i— cd rr< 03 cd A) ^ "O w 43 4—* -*_J £ T3 JC 00 eS 43 "2 O O O o nr pc J q JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002 247 HABITAT PREFERENCE AND ENVIRONMENTAL RE LA TIONS OF HYDROBIA SP. Maximum monthly population density of 306/ 0.1 sq. m was recorded in February 1991, followed by 106/0.1 sq. m in November 1990 and January 1991 in location 2. The species showed no seasonal pattern in distribution. A substantial variation in the distribution of the species was evident in the three tidal areas. At location 1, Hydrobia sp. population was 42.4%, 40.9% and 16.7% in the high, mid and low tide areas respectively, while at location 2, the population was 20%, 36.7% and 43.3% in the high, mid, and low tide areas respectively. A reduction in population density from high to low tide areas was thus seen at location 1, as opposed to an increase in population density from high to low tide areas at location 2. The greater numbers of the species in the low tide area of location 2 and high tide area of location 1 indicate that the tidal rhythm does not seem to influence the horizontal distribution and abundance of this infaunal mollusc. This suggests that the little more consolidated substratum of prolonged exposed high tide areas as well as the non- consol idated substratum, when only compared to high tide areas, of prolonged submerged low tide areas simultaneously favoured the occurrence of Hydrobia sp. Tidal cycle is a characteristic feature of the intertidal area. The exposed area above the mid-tide mark was more consolidated than the more submerged area of the low-tide mark. Therefore, the nature of the substratum apparently varies in the intertidal zone. Hydrobia sp. was distributed irrespective of the substratum. Vertical distribution The vertical distribution of Hydrobia sp. at location 2 is given in Table 3. Maximum density was found in the upper 0-5 cm sediment stratum. 63.3%, 15.1 % and 21.6% of the fauna was found at 0-5, 5- 1 0 and 10-15 cm respectively. A maximum of 50/0.1 sq. m (in June, 1991) and 1 9/0. 1 sq. m (in March, 1991) Hydrobia sp. were recorded in the deeper 10-15 cm stratum in comparison to the upper stratum of mangrove soil. Vertical distribution pattern of Hydrobia sp. reveals that the species can penetrate the soil down to 15 cm and beyond, showing its burrowing ability. High numerical abundance of the organisms in the 10-15 cm depth in comparison to the topsoil, only in two months (Table 3) and also its lower density at other periods of the study in deeper portion shows the capacity of Hydrobia sp. to survive in the deeper mangrove soil. Availability of detritus formation appears to be more pronounced in the surface sediment strata and this may coincide with the maximum abundance of species in the 0-5 cm sediment layer. Hydrobia ulvae is a detritus- and deposit- feeder, and the difference in abundance of the species can be attributed to the nature of substratum in which they live (Newell 1965). It is suggested that the feeding habits increase with finer fractions of sediment. In the present study, the intertidal soil of the two mangrove areas was rich and thoroughly mixed with enormous detritus, while the substratum showed a characteristic difference in sand-silt-clay fractions. Finer fractions (silt and clay) of sediment and organic carbon were high at location 2, compared to location 1 and Hydrobia sp. showed dominance in the former area. Moreover, the concentration of organic carbon content pertains largely to the finer fractions of sediments (Sunil Kumar 1996). Food resource input as well as other ecological features of mangroves might be more or less similar in these two areas, whereas the mangrove substratum showed variability, reflecting the difference in distribution and numerical abundance of species. Tidal influence, a cardinal factor as far as the distribution of various intertidal animals in different habitats is concerned, did not appear to be a limiting factor in the distribution of Hydrobia sp. in the present study. High abundance of detritus, the favourite food of Hydrobia sp., together with its euryhaline nature, 248 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002 HABITAT PREFERENCE AND ENVIRONMENTAL RELATIONS 0FHYDROBIA SR Table 3 POPULATION DENSITY (/0. 1 SQ. M) OF HYDROBIA SP. IN THREE STRATA (0-5,5-10, 10-15 CM) AT LOCATION 2 0-5 Low tide area 5-10 10-15 0-5 Mid tide area 5-10 10-15 0-5 High tide area 5-10 10-15 March 1990 25 - - 14 - 8 36 - 3 June 6 3 - 25 8 8 28 11 3 September 22 3 o J 22 3 3 - - - January 1991 11 8 3 92 11 3 6 6 6 March 17 3 - 3 6 19 6 - 6 June 22 22 50 22 3 6 - - - August 6 - - - - - - - 3 Total 109 39 56 178 31 47 ■ 76 17 21 burrowing capacity and adaptations for survival towards deeper sediments are favourable factors responsible for the long-term occurrence and abundance of organisms in two different types of substrata. The study also reveals that Hydrobia sp. prefer the mangrove habitat of location 2, of which the top 0-5 cm layer of the soil provides the most suitable habitat. References Alcantara, RH. & V.S. Weiss (1995): Macrobenthic communities associated with the red mangrove (Rhizophora mangle ) in Tenninos Lagoon, Mexico Gulf. Rev. Biol. Trop. 43: 117-129. El Wakeel, S.K. & J.R Riley (1957): The determination of organic carbon in marine muds. J. Cons. Penn, int. Explor. mer. 22: 180-183. Kasinathan, R.A. & Sfianmugham (1985): Molluscan fauna of Pichavaram mangroves, Tamil Nadu. In: Proceedings of the National Symposium in Biology, Utilisation and Conservation of Mangroves (Ed.: Bhosale,L.J.).Pp. 438-443. Krumbein, W.C & F.J. Pettijohn (1938): Manual of sedimentary petrography. Appleton Century Crofts, New York, pp. 549. Newell, R. ( 1 965): The role of detritus in the nutrition of two marine deposit feeders, the prosobranch Hydrobia ulvae and the bivalve Macoma baithica. Proc. Zool. Soc. London 144: 25-45. Patra, K.C., A.B. Bhunia& A. Mitra(1990): Ecology of macrobenthos in a tidal creek and adjoining mangroves in West Bengal, India. Envir. Eco. 8(2): 539-547. Schrijvers, J., D. Van Gansbeke & M. Vincx (1995): Macrobenthic infauna of mangrove and surrounding beaches at Gazi Bay, Kenya. Hydrobiologia 306(1): 53-66. Sheridan, P. (1997): Benthos of adjacent mangrove, seagrass and non-vegetated habitats Rookery, Florida. U.S.A. Esluar. Coast. Shelf Sci 44(4): 455- 469. Singh, B.N. & A. Choudhury (1995): Studies on the distribution of Gastropoda (Mollusca) in a mangrove forest (Prentice Island) of Sunderbans, India. J. mar. biol. Ass. India 37 (1&2): 283-286. Strickland, J.D. & T.R. Parsons (1977): A practical handbook of sea water analysis. Bull. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada , Ottawa, 167, pp. 203. Sunil Kumar, R. ( 1 996): Distribution of organic carbon in the sediments of Cochin mangroves. South West Coast of India. Indian J. Mar. Sci. 25: 274-276. Sunil Kumar, R. (1997): Vertical distribution and abundance of soil dwelling macro invertebrates in an estuarine mangrove biotope. Indian J. Mar. Sci. 26: 26-30. Sunil Kumar, R. ( 1 998): A critique on the occurrence and distribution of macrozoobenthos in a traditional prawn field and adjacent mangroves in Cochin backwaters. J. mar. biol. India 40 (1&2): 11-15. Sunil Kumar, R. (2001): New record of the mud snail Hydrobia (Mollusca: Gastropoda) from the mangrove habitat of Indo-Pacific region. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 98(1): 142-144. Walkley, A. & I. A. Black (1934): An estimation of the Degtjareff method for determining soil organic matter and a proposed modification of the chromic acid titration method. Soil Sci. 37: 29-38. Yu Ri Quing. G.Z. Chen, Y.S. Wong, N.F.Y. Tam & C.Y. Lan ( 1 997): Benthic macrofauna of the mangrove swamp treated with municipal water. Hydrobiologia 347: 127-137. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002 249 BARBULE STRUCTURE OF BIRD FEATHERS1 A. Raj aram2 {With five plates) Key words: barbule morphology, bird-hits, bird taxonomy, feather microstructure, feathers The structure of barbules from bird feathers has been studied by optical (bright field and polarized) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The factors which help in its identification are discussed and attention is drawn to similarities within related species and difficulties encountered. Introduction Optical microscopy of feather remnants has been employed to identify the species involved in bird-hit cases of aircraft (Rosalind and Grubh JBNHS 1987, 84: 429-431). The general principle is that the nodal pattern on barbules, the colour at the nodes and their shape are characteristic of a species. The present paper is an extension of the work. In the case of bird-hits to aircraft, it is possible to identify the bird from other body parts, if they are in good condition. However, identification of a species solely on the basis of feathers is difficult, and analysis of the feather structure in greater detail is necessary. In addition to optical microscopy, where objects are viewed in a bright field, I have used polarized light microscopy and Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) to identify a species. A detailed study of this nature can help to identify birds involved in bird-hits, and also in taxonomy and in the control of trade in endangered species. Materials and Methods Samples were obtained fresh, usually feathers floating in the air, picked up as they hit the ground, from the bird under observation. Three samples (i.e. crow pheasant, house crow and Indian pitta) were of dead birds, but without any apparent putrefaction. Samples for light microscopy were prepared as follows: Barbule feathers were washed in 70% alcohol, then in absolute alcohol, rinsed in 'Accepted February, 2001 -Biophysics Division, Central Leather Research Institute Chennai 600 020, Tamil Nadu, India. xylene and mounted on glass slides with DPX mountant under a coverslip. This resulted in poor contrast in white feathers, hence those samples were viewed in polarized light. For Scanning Electron Microscopy, samples bearing barbies were mounted on double sided sticking tape stuck on to aluminium stubs, given a thin coat of gold and viewed in a Cambridge Stereoscan S 150 or a JEOL 5600LV instrument at an accelerating voltage of 10 kV. Results and Discussion The micrographs obtained are shown in Figs 1-18. (Abbrev.: SEM = scanning electron micrograph, OMB = optical micrograph in bright field and OMP = optical micrograph in polarized light. The micron mark lines indicate 50 micrometres in the optical micrographs). Feather barbules from 1 8 species were studied. The SEM studies show surface features very well. Projections on the barbules are clearly seen. Fig. 1 a is that of the Indian peafowl Pavo cristatus. The barbules are thick and the nodal projections are characteristic. The optical micrograph (Fig. lb) shows some variations, depending on the plane of focus. Since the depth of focus, compared to the SEM, is very small for the optical microscope and we did not stain or take sections, we got an average effect, due to the thickness of the barbules. We noticed pigmentation in some regions, which was absent in other barbules, but a change in the focus point resulted in some contrast in these regions also. To the same observer, this would not be a problem as he would become aware of the variations possible, but in 250 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002 BARBULE STRUCTURE OF BIRD FEATHERS Rajaram, A.: Barbule structure Plate 1 Figs 1-3: la. Indian peafowl (SEM), lb. Indian peafowl (OMB), 2a. Blue rock pigeon (SEM), 2b. Blue rock pigeon (SEM), 2c. Blue rock pigeon (OMB), 3. Pompadour green-pigeon (OMB) JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002 251 BARBULE STRUCTURE OF BIRD FEATHERS Rajaram, A.: Barbule structure Plate 2 Figs 4-6: 4a. House crow (SEM), 4b. House crow (OMB), 5a. Common myna (SEM), 5b. Common myna (OMB), 6a. Indian pitta (SEM), 6b. Indian pitta (OMB) 252 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002 BARBULE STRUCTURE OF BIRD FEATHERS Rajaram, A.: Barbule structure Plate 3 Figs 7-10: 7a. Rose-ringed parakeet (SEM), 7b. Rose-ringed parakeet (OMB), 8a. Black-crowned night-heron (SEM), 8b. Black-crowned night-heron (OMP), 9. Cattle egret (OMP), 10. Median egret (OMP) JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002 253 BARBULE STRUCTURE OF BIRD FEATHERS Rajaram, A.: Barbule structure Plate 4 Figs 11-15: 1 la. Indian white-backed vulture (SEM), lib. Indian white-backed vulture (OMB), 12. Painted stork (SEM), 13. Spot-billed pelican (SEM), 14. Brahminy kite (OMB), 15. Greater coucal (OMB) 254 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002 BARBULE STRUCTURE OF BIRD FEATHERS Rajaram, A.: Barbule structure Figs 16-18: 16. Eurasian eagle owl (OMB), 17. Spotted owlet (OMB), 18. Black kite (SEM) Plate 5 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002 255 / BARBULE STRUCTURE OF BIRD FEA THERS printed representative pictures, it could cause some confusion. Fig. 2a is from a blue rock pigeon Columba livia. The fresh feather has a powdery coating, which may be the powder keratin said to be found in this species. The nodal projections are clearer when this powder keratin is cleaned (Fig. 2b). Fig. 2c shows the barbule under an optical microscope. The figure is similar to the one published by Rosalind and Grubh (op. cit.), but the pigmentation is invisible in this photograph as my focus point is different. Barbules from a Pompadour green-pigeon Treron pompadora (Fig. 3) resemble that of the blue rock pigeon. The barbules from a house crow Corvus splendens (Fig. 4) show pigmentation at the nodes. There is a distinct increase in thickness from node to node towards the distal end of the barbule, as seen in the SEM. Common myna Acridotheres tristis feathers show distinct pigmentation above and below the node (Fig. 5b). The Indian pitta Pitta brachyura feather has a rode with a uniform projection all around (Fig. 6a) and the pigmenta- tion is also distinct (Fig. 6b). The roseringed parakeet Psittacula krameri (Fig. 7) has nodal projections extending over a longer portion as seen in the SEM, a more helpful diagnostic feature than the OMB and the figure published earlier. In case of white feathers, there was little contrast in the OMB. Hence the samples were observed in polarized light. The black-crowned night-heron barbules (Fig. 8) can be distinguished by the shorter intemodai distance compared to that of the cattle egret Bubulcus ibis (Fig. 9) and median egret Mesophoyx intermedia (Fig. 10), but there is little difference between the last two. SEM (Fig. 8a) is not useful in identifying the black-crowned night-heron or the cattle and median egrets (not shown). White feathers are thus difficult to identify if the details are not present at the nodal junctions. The SEM seen in Fig. 8a is similar to many feathers like the Indian white-backed vulture Gyps bengalensis (Fig. 11a), the painted stork Mycteria leucocephala (Fig. 12) and the spot-billed pelican Pelecanns philippensis (Fig. 13). However, the OMB of the Indian white-backed vulture (Fig. 1 1 b) is distinctive in that there seem to be pores within the barbules. Does this help in reduced buoyancy in soaring flight? The nodal projections are comparatively less prominent in birds that soar, and may be an adaptation for smoother air flow. The barbule structure of the brahminy kite Haliastur indus (Fig. 14), greater coucal Centropus sinensis (Fig. 15), Eurasian eagle owl Bubo bubo (Fig. 16) and spotted owlet Athene brama (Fig. 17) are also shown. Greater coucal barbules show pigmentation throughout. The nodal projections are more prominent in the Eurasian eagle owl than in the spotted owlet, but some relatedness is also evident. However, when we compare the barbules of the spotted owlet with the published picture of the Eurasian scops-owl Otus scops (Rosalind and Grubh op. cit.), there is little difference. From the various species studied here, only two of the eight observations mentioned in the earlier paper are really helpful in identification from the barbule structure alone. In addition to: “barbules are clearly subdivided into nodes and intemodes, which are often pigmented” it can be said that the nodes have a distinct projection whose shape, size and orientation are largely characteristic of the species. Often, the thickness of the barbules is related to the size of the bird, even though there are exceptions (eg. black kite Milvus migrans (Fig. 1 8) has comparatively thinner barbules). The nodal projections are more prominent in passerines than in birds that soar. The variations in barbule structure are less significant in related birds (blue rock pigeon vs. Pompadour green-pigeon, spotted owlet vs. Eurasian scops-owl). More detailed studies are required for identifying closely related species and those with mostly white plumage. Acknowledgements I thank Dr. Peter Koshy and colleagues of Regional Research Laboratory, Thiruvanan- thapuram for some of the SEM pictures. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002 257 NEW DESCRIPTIONS MELANOCHAETOMYIA , A NEW GENUS OF CHLOROPIDAE (DIPTERA) FROM THE ORIENTAL REGION1 P.T. Cherian2 ( With five text-figures) Key words: Melanochaetomyia gen. nov., M. rubrohalterata sp. nov., Chloropid fly, Oriental Region Melanochaetomyia gen. nov. is described from India with M. rubrohalterata sp. nov., the type species. Introduction The close affinities of E/achiptera Macquart to its congeners Melanochaeta Bezzi, Disciphus Becker, Anatrichus Loew and others were recognized by earlier workers like Duda (1934), Cherian (1975) and Sabrosky (1977). Andersson (1977) brought them together under genus Elachiptera , which was followed by Kanmiya (1983). Nartshuk (1983, 1987) assigned the status of a tribe, namely Elachipterini Lioy, to this group after removing Cadrema Walker and adding four more genera to it. While studying this tribe, one new species was found, which possesses a combination of characters not found in any other genus of the tribe or any other Chloropid genera. A new generic name, Melanochaetomyia is proposed to describe this species. The type specimen is deposited in the collections of the Southern Regional Station, Zoological Survey of India, Chennai. Regn. No. I/DC/122; SRS/ZSI. Melanochaetomyia gen. nov. Type species: Melanochaetomyia rubrohalterata sp. nov. 'Accepted November, 1999 Zoological Survey of India, Southern Regional Station, 1 00, Santhome High Road, Chennai 600 028, Tamil Nadu, India. Description: Black, stocky-bodied flies with polished frontal triangle bearing long hairs on each half, 10 orb , 1+2 npl and a bristle on katepisternum (sternopleuron). Head higher than long; frons slightly widened at vertex otherwise parallel-sided, projecting above and beyond eyes anteriorly, with long dense punctate fr; frontal triangle large, polished, reaching four-fifths length of frons, with nearly pointed apex and punctate hairs on the triangle on either side. Face deeply concave, densely silvery grey tomentose; facial carina low, reaching almost middle of face; epistomal margin a little raised. Antenna erect; ant 2 with long slender spine; ant 3 reniform, 1 .3x as wide as long; arista not terminal; flagellum slender with long, fairly dense hairs. Eye large with vertical long axis and very dense pubescence. Gena rather narrow, densely tomentose, as also postgena, the latter with long hairs; vibrissal comer nearly a right angle; vibrissa long and slender; occipital margin around bases of ovt and ivt tomentose and with dense hairs; a row of postocular setae well developed. Head bristles black with erect and convergent oc, well- developed vertical bristles, 9-10 orb and inclinate if- Thorax predominantly brownish-black; scutum glabrous with two lateral and two median longitudinal stripes and white punctate hairs; humeral callus and the area behind up to base of wing, part of anepst, hypopleuron and margins of scutellum tomentose; scutellum nearly semicircular 258 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002 NEW DESCRIPTIONS with almost flattened disc and punctate hairs; thoracic bristles well developed with 1 /?, 1+2 npl , pa 1 , pa 2, 1 dc , widely separated <35 and 55 1 and a bristle on kepst as in species of Cadrema. Wing with brownish tinge; m|+2 ending beyond apex of wing; r-m cross-vein beyond middle of discal cell; anal angle well developed. Haltere partly red and yellow. Legs brownish-black, but for yellow tarsi; femoral organ a row of 7-8 short spines; tibial organ long, oval. Abdomen black, somewhat shiny, densely silvery-grey tomentose with long erect hairs except for dorsal areas of basal segments. Male genitalia: Epandrium broader than tong; surstylus broadly triangular, narrowly rounded apically; cercus moderately developed; hypandrium broadly and shallowly incised on outer margin of basal bridge; aedeagal apodeme well developed; distiphallus subcylindrical, progressively somewhat narrowing distal ly; postgonite unlike in Melanochaeta not triangular but subcylindrical, ending with a somewhat obtuse apex. Gender and derivation: Feminine; from Melanochaeta plus the suffix myia. One species, rubrohalterata is described here which is the type species. Melanochaetomyia rubrohalterata sp. nov. (Figs 1-5) Male: Head (Fig. 1): Much higher than long, length, height and width ratio 2:3:4. Frons greatly depressed, but anteriorly area beyond lunule projecting prominently above eyes, parallel-sided but slightly widened at vertex, where it is silvery grey tomentose and with prominent hairs, v/idth 0.85x the length and 0.43x the width of head, blackish-brown, but projecting area anteriorly brownish-yellow, wholly with prominent whitish- black fir; frontal triangle large, shiny brownish- black, reaching four-fifths the length of frons, ending with narrowly obtuse apex, with a few prominent punctate hairs on triangle mostly confined to either side of median part and the area behind, area inner to lateral margin with 2 to 3 very low, linear short ridges and depressions, each commencing from vertex margin and extending to level of posterior margin of anterior ocellus. Face deeply concave, much narrower than frons, brownish-black, very densely silvery grey tomentose and hence appearing grey; facial carina very low, triangular between eyes and extending hardly one-fourth the length of face and roofed basal ly by projecting frons; spine on ant 2 long; ant 3 reniform, 1.5x as wide as long, upper one- third brownish-black, rest yellow; arista black, basal segments slightly thickened and with short hairs, flagellum slender with dense prominent concolorous hairs. Gena dark brown, one-fifth as wide as ant 3, grey plumose; vibrissal corner almost a right angle with long, slender vibrissa; postgena concolorous with and plumose like gena. Palpi yellowish-brown; proboscis partly shiny black and partly brown. Head bristles well developed, black; ovt and the cruciate pvt subequal; ivt a trifle shorter than ovt; oc upright, convergent, three-fifths the pvt; orb about 1 0, posterior 4 more developed and reclinate to partly erect, the rest slanting and inclinate; if in a row outside the triangle along lateral margin and a few on the triangle on either side not in rows; if and the well developed fr almost of equal size; a well developed row of long black postocular setae very prominent. Thorax: Almost as wide as head, predominantly brownish-black, scutum 1.1 5x as long as wide with glabrous, greatly convex disc bearing two median and two lateral longitudinal dark blue stripes, of which each of former commences from the anterior margin and extends to three-fifths the length, while both more broad lateral ones extend from level of humeral callus and taper off above 1 dc at the level of pa 2, wholly covered with dense white finely punctate hairs which are somewhat parted along narrowly grooved acr and dc lines; humeral callus and area JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002 259 NEW DESCRIPTIONS Figs 1-5: Melcmochaetomyia rubroha/terata sp. nov., 1. Head, 2. Scutellum, 3. Wing, 4. Epandrium, 5. Hypandrium and Phallic complex 260 JOURNAL; BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002 NEW DESCRIPTIONS up to base of pa 1 densely silvery grey tomentose; scutellum (Fig. 2) nearly semicircular, 1 .2x as wide as long, with nearly flattened glabrous disc and thick, densely tomentose margins, concolorous with and punctate and pubescent like scutum; pleura brownish-black with glabrous black maculae along lower anterior margin of anepst, lower margin of meron above coxa on anepm, except for part of lower halves densely tomentose; kepst with long white hairs and one bristle. All thoracic bristles black, well developed; h 1 ; npl 1 +2 and 1 dc all subequal; pa 1 a trifle longer than pa 2 and shorter than 1 dc; as as long as scutellum, widely separated; 55 1 , 0.6x the as. Wing (Fig. 3): Brownish, as long as body and 2.42x as long as wide, distinctly brownish; m|+2 ending beyond wing apex; proportions of costal sectors 2 to 4 in the ratio 25: 15:8; r-m cross- vein beyond middle of discal cell at 0.57 of its length; terminal sectors of r4+5and m|+2 parallel; anal angle well developed. Distal half of knob of haltere reddish, basal part and stalk yellow. Legs: With dense yellow hairs; coxae, trochanters, femora and tibiae brownish-black; femoral organ well developed, distinctly projecting in the form of one row of 8 to 9 warts; tibial organ long, oval; all tarsi yellow; midtibia with a slender terminal spine. Abdomen: Somewhat shiny black, whole of dorsum grey tomentose, covered with long dense black hairs except for the median parts of Refer Andersson, H. (1977): Taxonomic and phylogenetic studies on Chloropidae (Diptera) with special reference to Old World Genera. Ent. Scand. Suppl. 8: 1-200. Cherian, P.T. (1975): Indian species of Elachiptera Macquart (Diptera: Chloropidae). Orient. Ins. 9(1): 9-12, 16 figs. Duda, O. (1934): Fauna Sumatrensis, Bijdrage No. 74.Chloropidae (Diptera). Tijdschr Ent. 77: 55- 161. Kanmiya, K. (1983): A systematic study of the Japanese Chloropidae (Diptera). Mem. Entomol. Soc ., basal segments. Male genitalia (Figs 4, 5): epandrium much wider than long; cercus with two long hairs; surstylus well developed, with conspicuous hairs; postgonites with a few short hairs distally. Length: Male 2.8 mm; wing 2.7 mm. Holotype: Male, india: Meghalaya: Nangpo, 1 0.iv. 1 979, Coll. P.T. Cherian. Remarks: This species was collected along with other members of the Tribe Elachipterini belonging to genera Melanochaeta Bezzi, Elachiptera Macquart and Cadrema Walker from the Nango forest in Meghalaya, a haven for diverse groups of insects, especially dipterans. It differs from all its congeners, apart from other characters, in possessing well-developed hairs on the frontal triangle. Abbreviations: acr acrostical; anepm anepimeron; anepst anepisternum; as apical scutellar bristle; dc dorsocentral bristle;^ frontal hairs; h humeral bristle; if interfrontal bristle; ivt inner vertical bristle; kepst katepisternum; npl notopleural bristle; oc ocellar bristle; orb fronto-orbital bristle; ovt outer vertical bristle; pa postalar bristle; pvt postvertical bristle; as subapical scutellar bristle. Acknowledgement I am grateful to the Director, Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata for encouragement. E N C E S Washington 11: 1-370. Nartshuk, E.R (1983): A system of the superfamily Chloropoidea (Diptera: Cyclorrhapha). Ent. Oboz. Moscow. 62(3): 638-648. Nartshuk, E.P. (1987): Zlakovie Mukhi (Diptera: Chloropidae) IK Systema, Evolusia i. Svyazi s rastennymi. Trud. Zoo/. Inst. Acad. Nauk USSR, 136: 1-280. Sabrosky, C.W. (1977): Family Chloropidae, pp. 277-319 (part). In: A catalog of Diptera of the Oriental Region. 3 (Eds.: Delfinado and Hardy). University Hawaii Press, Honolulu. JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002 261 TWO NEW SPECIES OF GENUS COLLOTHECA HARRING 1913 (ROTIFER A: MONOGONONTA) FROM FRESHWATERS OF TRIPURA, INDIA1 S. Banik2 ( With two text-figures ) Key words: C. tetralobata sp. nov., C. hexalobata sp. nov., new species, freshwater wetland The present study recorded two new species: Collotheca tetralobata sp. nov. and C. hexalobata sp. nov. from the wetlands of Tripura which are described here. In order to find out their ecological niche characteristics, different physicochemical factors of water, preference of plant-substrata, and seasonal occurrence of the species were also noted. Introduction Collotheca belongs to the sessile fauna under Phylum Rotifera. In India, some workers (Anderson 1889, Sarma and Rao 1986, Sarma 1988, Banik and Kar 1995) studied the taxonomy of the genus. However, Koste (1978) made a detailed study on their taxonomy with regard to the European region. In taxonomic observations, knowledge of ecological conditions is most helpful to get an idea of the distribution of species, which is lacking in most descriptions of new taxa (Anderson 1889, Segers et al. 1994). The present work describes two new rotifer species with their ecological characteristics such as physicochemical conditions of their freshwater habitat, nature of plant substrata and seasonal occurrence. Material and Methods The rotifer fauna were collected live from natural substrata (such as root, stem and leaf of hydrophytes) from the littoral region of shallow water wetlands of Agartala, Tripura (23° 50* 15" N and 91° 15' 45" E) during 1994-1997. The live specimens were examined under an Olympus 'Accepted April, 2000 Tisheries & Limnology Research Unit, Department of Life Science, Tripura University, Agartala 799 013, Tripura, India. Trinocular-KH microscope with a camera lucida. Preparation of trophi was done following the method of Banik and Kar (1995) and Banik (1996). The physicochemical analysis of freshwater was made following APHA (1992). Type specimens were deposited in the Fishery Laboratory, University of Calcutta, Kolkata (MFLC) and in the collection of the Fishery & Limnology Research Unit, Tripura University, Tripura (RTU). All measurements (size of body, amictic and resting eggs of the rotifer fauna) are expressed in pm. Koste’s (1978) key was followed for the description of the taxa. Results Family: Collothecidae Genus: Collotheca Harring 1913 Collotheca tetralobata sp. nov. Collotheca hexalobata sp. nov. Collotheca tetralobata sp. nov. Materials examined: Twelve partheno- genetic females (Holotype, MFLC 219); nine parthenogenetic females (Paratype, MFLC 220); a glass vial with 23 specimens (Paratype, MFLC 221). One parthenogenetic female, one mictic female (Paratype, RTU); six parthenogenetic females (Paratype, RTU); permanent mounted slide consists of entire animal and trophi (RTU). 262 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002 NEW DESCRIPTIONS 1 ABC lOO/um ID 15 Aim - 1 Fig. 1: Collotheca tetralobata sp. nov., A. The specimen in normal condition, B. Amictic egg, C. Resting egg, D. Trophi Description: Parthenogenetic Females (Figs 1A-D). Corona with four unequal, blunt lobes (two longer) and tetragonaliy arranged. Bristles longer at the tip of the lobes. Cilia very small at interlobal area. Germovitellarium distinct during pre-reproductive period. Lorica transparent, very long, oval-shaped. Holdfast much longer. Longitudinal and circular muscles of coronal lobes distinct during relaxation. Antennae paired, laterally placed between coronal funnel and the trunk. Amictic eggs, 3-5 at a time. Resting eggs, 1-2 at a time. Just before laying eggs, the animal undergoes a resting condition for a few seconds. Trophi uncinate type (Fig. ID), uncus and subuncus distinct. Males unknown. Measurements in pm: Total length of the body 700-770 Length of the lorica 400-467 Length of longer tube 97- 1 06 Length of shorter tube 63-69 Breadth of corona 57-65 Length of the trunk 2 1 6-22 1 Breadth of trunk at apex 43-49 Breadth of trunk at base 15-19 Length of the foot 220-248 Length of the holdfast 167-195 Length of amictic egg 100-1 16 Width of amictic egg 71-89 Length of resting egg 173-184 Width of resting egg 102-1 12 Differential diagnosis: The new species belongs to the C. ornata type, but is easily distinguished from C. ornata by the presence of two longer lobes and two shorter lobes, paired lateral antennae, very long holdfast and interlobal cilia, and by the absence of pentagonal arrangement of five short lobes and very reduced holdfast. Collotheca tetralobata sp. nov. might also be confused with the congener possessing blunt lobes. C. ornata , however, has odd numbered smaller lobes of similar size and varied shape of lorica. JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002 263 NEW DESCRIPTIONS Ecological Characteristics a) Physicochemical conditions of water. The new species was found in temperatures of 10-21 °C, dissolved oxygen 4. 7-8. 9 ppm, pH 6- 6.9, bicarbonate 63-98 ppm, silicate 3-9 ppm and dissolved organic matter 3-7.6 ppm. b) Plant-substrata preference'. This species occurs on stems and leaves of Utricularia vulgaris. Sometimes occurred on root-hairs of Eichhornia crassipes also. However, it was not seen in any other macrophytes. c) Seasonal Occurrence : Co/lotheca tetralobata sp. nov. was noted in the winter months only. Collotheca hexalobata sp. nov. Material examined: Nine parthenogenetic females (Holotype, MFLC 323); eleven parthenogenetic females (Paratype, MFLC 324), vial with 30 specimens (Paratype, MFLC 325). One parthenogenetic female, one mictic female (Paratype, RTU), five parthenogenetic females (Paratype, RTU), permanent mounted slide with entire animal and trophi (RTU). Description: Parthenogenetic females (Figs 2A-D). Corona broad with six equal, blunt lobes arranged hexagonally. Bristles longer, germovitellarium distinct during adult period. Lorica less transparent, wavy at the lower part. Holdfast much longer, with continuous contraction habit. Base of holdfast broad, oval. Antennae paired, lateral. Amictic eggs, 2-3 at a time. Resting eggs, 2-3 time. Trophi uncinate type (Fig 2D). Males unknown, probably distorted during mounting process. Measurements in jam: Total length of the body 1,426-1,530 Length of the lorica 300-398 Length of the lobe 65-79 Breadth of the corona 271-280 Length of the trunk 383- 400 Breadth of trunk at apex 97-101 Breadth of trunk at base 59-65 D 2 ABC 100/um 2D 15 /um Fig. 2: Collotheca hexalobata sp. nov., A. The specimen in normal condition, B. Amictic egg, C. Resting egg, D. Trophi 264 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY 99(2). AUG. 2002 NEW DESCRIPTIONS Length of the foot 357-381 Length of the holdfast 477-510 Length of amictic egg 107-118 Width of amictic egg 73-88 Length of resting egg 168-180 Width of resting egg 100-113 Differential diagnosis: The new species belongs to the C. tenuilobata type, but is easily distinguished from C. tenuilobata by the presence of six lobes, longer holdfast and its broad and oval base and by the absence of pentagonal arrangement of tubular lobes, interlobal cilia, greatly reduced holdfast with small and round base and a transparent lorica. C. hexalobata sp. nov. might also be confused with the congener whose tubular lobes look like blunt lobes and the longer holdfast seems to be a reduced one under contracted condition of the whole body, which is an important behavioural character of C. tenuilobata. However, C. tenuilobata under relaxed condition shows a transparent lorica, pentagonal lobes and much reduced holdfast. Ecological Characteristics: a) Physico- chemical conditions of water: C. hexalobata sp. nov. was found at temperatures of 16-34 °C, dissolved oxygen 3. 6-7. 8 ppm, pH 5. 7-6. 8, bicarbonate 34-89 ppm and dissolved organic matter 6-13 ppm. b) Plant-substrata preference : This species was found only on root-hairs of Eichhornia crass ip es. c) Seasonal Occurrence : It was observed mostly during summer, and only one individual was noted in winter (i.e. in December 1994 and November 1996). Refer Anderson, H.H. (1889): Notes on Indian Rotifers. J. Asiatic Soc. Bengal 58: 345-358. APHA ( 1 992): Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Waste Water. American Water Works Association and Water Pollution Control Federation, Washington, 1268 pp. Discussion The morphological characteristics of the two new species C. tetralobata sp. nov. and C. hexalobata sp. nov. do not exhibit any specific similarity with known rotifer species of Collotheca Harring 1913 (Koste 1978). C. tetralobata sp. nov. can be confused with C. ornate and C. hexalobata sp. nov. with C. temalobata to some extent. However, the new taxa are quite different from the known rotifer species because of some distinct, new and easily identifiable taxonomic characters (Segers et al. 1992, 1994). Besides this, the most interesting feature of the new taxa is species-specific ecological niche characteristics such as physicochemical condition of water, preference of particular plant- substratum for growth, food and occurrence of species in particular season(s) (Banik 1987, Datta and Banik 1987, Banik and Kar 1995, Banik 1996, 1997, 1998, 1999). The present observation confirms that shallow freshwater bodies of Tripura are much neglected in studies of sessile rotifers (Banik et al. 1994) Acknowledgements 1 thank the UGC (Sanction No. F 3-52/93 SR-II), New Delhi, for financing the study under the Major Research Project. Thanks are due to Mrs. S. Deb and S. Debbarman for sampling the rotifers and water; to Professor Walter Koste, Germany for suggestions and to the Head, Department of Life Science, Tripura University for laboratory facilities. E N C E S Banik, S. (1987): Ecological studies of periphyton on artificial substrata in lentic water bodies. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Calcutta, 1 09 pp. Banik, S. (1996): New Records of Sessile Rotifers from Freshwater fishponds of Tripura II. Proc. Indian natn. Sci. Acad. B62 (2): 111-116. JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002 265 NEW DESCRIPTIONS Banik, S. (1997): New Records of Sessile Rotifera from freshwater fish ponds of Tripura, India with notes on ecological niche. Paper presented in VII International Rotifer Symposium held at Minnesota, June 22-27, 1997. Banik, S. (1998): New Records of rotifers (planktonic) from freshwater wetlands of Tripura (India) II. Bangladesh J. Zoology 26(1 ): 67-72. Banik, S. ( 1 999): New Records of planktonic Rotifera from freshwater wetlands of Tripura (India). J. Asia Soc. Bangladesh, Science 25 (2): 17-23. Banik, S., R. Debnath, S. Debbarman & S. Kar (1994): Occurrence of rotifers in a seasonal wetland in relation to some limnological conditions. J. Freshwater Biol. 6: 221-224. Banik, S. & S. Kar (1995): New Records of Sessile Rotifers from freshwater fish ponds of Tripura. Proc. Indian natn. Sci. Acad. B61: 225-230. Datta, N.C. & S. Banik (1987): Periphytic community on glass slide substrata in a freshwater lake in relation to some abiotic factors Proc. Indian natn. Sci. Acad B53 : 245-247. Koste, W. (1978): Rotatoria Monogononta Bomtraeger, Berlin, Stuttgart, Vol. I, Textband 673 p., Tafelband 234 p. Sarma, S.S.S. (1988): New records of freshwater rotifers (Rotifera) from Indian waters. Hydrobiologia 160: 263-269. Sarma, S.S.S. & T.R. Rao (1986): Observations on the egg types and males of Collotheca tenuilobata Anderson (Rotifera: Collothecidae). Proc. Indian natn. Sci. Acad B52: 729-73 1 . Segers, H., N. Emir & J. Mertens (1992): Rotifera from north and northeast Anatolia (Turkey). Hydrobiologia 245 : 1 79- 1 89. Segers, H., D.K. Mbogo & H.J. Dumont (1994): New Rotifera from Kenya, with a revision of the Ituridae. Zoological J. Linn. Soc. 7: 25-31. 266 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002 A NEW CYPRINID FISH SPECIES OF BARIIJUS HAMILTON FROM THE CHATRICKONG RIVER, MANIPUR, INDIA' Keishing Selim and Waikhom Vishwanath2 ( With one text-figure) Key words: New species, Barilius chatricensis sp. nov., Manipur A new species of Barilius is described based on ten specimens from Chatrickong river, flowing through Chatrick village of the Ukhrul district, Manipur, India. The species is characterised by 15 rows of scales in front of the dorsal fin, 7-8 distinct dark blue bands on the side of the body, absence of a dark spot at the base of the caudal fin, and absence of barbels on the snout. The maxilla does not reach the base of the pectoral fin. The dorsal fins do not commence midway between the eye and base of caudal fin, and the last short dorsal fin-ray does not reach the caudal peduncle. Lateral line is complete with 38 scales, and predorsal scales are 15 in number. Introduction The bariline fishes of the genus Barilius Hamilton (Family Cyprinidae: Cyprininae) inhabit medium to fast torrential mountain streams of the Indian subcontinent, Thailand and Myanmar. The fishes are characterised by a compressed body, blue-black transverse bars or spots on the body and dorsal fins inserted beyond the middle of the body (Hamilton 1822). Howes (1980) made detailed study on the systematics of the genus, based on anatomical and osteological characters. The genus, as now restricted, includes only those species occurring in India, Nepal, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Myanmar and Thailand, with 25 species of the genus Barilius , 15 being in the Indian region (Talwar and Jhingran 1991). Only three species of Barilius were hitherto known from Manipur, India, namely B. barila (Hamilton 1822), B. bendelisis (Hamilton 1 822) and B. dogarsinghi Hora 1921 . A new species of Barilius is described here from Chatrickong river, that flows in the Ukhrul district of Manipur, India. The river is formed by two important tributaries: Khunukong and Sanalok; both of which meet at Dha-ado and flow as Chatrickong for about 5 km on Indian soil and then into Myanmar, finally meeting the 'Accepted October, 1999 department of Life Sciences, Manipur University, Canchipur 795 003, Manipur, India. Chindwin near Homalin, a township in Myanmar (about 24° 40' N, 94° 45' E). Material and Methods The new species was collected by cast net. Type specimens are deposited in the Manipur University Museum of Fishes (MUMF). Standard measurements and counts were made following Jayaram (1981 ). Body proportions are expressed as percentage of standard length (SL) and head length (HL). Transverse scales were counted as scaled between lateral line and dorsal fin origin and from lateral line to pelvic fin origin. Barilius chatricensis sp. nov. Holotype: MUMF 530/1, 86.4 mm (SL), Chatrickong river, Ukhrul District, Manipur, India. 150 km from Imphal. Coll. Keishing Selim; 16. xi. 1995. Paratype: MUMF 531/9 58.6-89.00 mm (SL). Data same as Holotype. Diagnosis: A species of Barilius with 7-8 thick blue-black transverse bands on the body which do not extend to lateral line; lateral line scales 38; predorsal scales 15. Maxilla does not reach the base of pectoral fin. Dorsal fins do not commence midway between the eye and base of caudal fin. Barbels absent on snout and no dark spots at the base of caudal fin. JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002 267 NEW DESCRIPTIONS Description: D. II, 7; P. i, 11; V. i, 8; A. ii, 10; C. 18;L.1.38;L.tr7/l/2;PDS. 15. Proportional measurements and counts of the fish are shown in Table 1. Body compressed, abdomen rounded, snout blunt, cleft of jaws with numerous pores. Upper jaw longer than lower. Eyes large, situated in the anterior half of the head. Barbels absent on snout. Maxilla does not reach the base of pectoral fin, and dorsal fins do not commence midway between eye and base of caudal fin. Dorsal profile in front of the dorsal fin relatively straight, slightly curved towards the base of the caudal fin. Dorsal fin inserted beyond middle of standard length; its insertion reaches the base of pelvic fin and its last fm ray short, not reaching caudal peduncle. Ventral fin does not reach anal fin. Vent opens just above base of anal fin. Caudal fin deeply forked, lower lobes longer than upper lobes. Colour: Body silvery white, slightly dark dorsally. 7-8 dark blue bands on the sides of the body. Bands short, thick, tapering towards the lateral line but not extending to it. Pectoral, ventral and anal fins tinged with orange colour in fresh condition. Distribution: Chatrickong river, Ulchrul district, Manipur, India. Etymology: The species name refers to the Chatrickong river from where the type material was collected. Remarks: Barilius chatricensis sp. nov. is similar to B. dogarsinghi Hora in some of its body proportions. But it differs from the latter in Table 1 MORPHOMETRIC CHARACTERS Characters Holotype Paratypes N=10 Mean In % of standard length: Body depth 28.00 24.57-29.21 26.89 Head length 25.23 25.23-27.07 26.15 Caudal length 24.07 24.07-28.27 26.15 Predorsal length 53.33 51.43-55.46 53.43 Dorsal fin height 18.23 17.51-20.85 19.18 Pectoral fin length 20.13 18.31-21.84 20.07 Pelvic fin length 15,50 15.50-18.25 16.87 Anal fin height 15.39 14.34-18.65 16.49 In % of head length: Head width 50.45 46.47-52.90 49.68 Head height at occiput 75.22 73.82-82.22 78.02 Snout length 30.73 29.82-34.85 32.33 Interorbital space 50.91 45.34-53.10 49.22 Eye diameter 28.89 25.72-29.82 27.77 Caudal peduncle length 71.55 71.78-79.79 75.78 Caudal peduncle depth 38.99 38.01-43.60 40.80 Mouth width 33.02 30.81-38.22 34.51 In % Caudal peduncle length: Caudal peduncle depth 54.44 48.76-57.00 52.88 Counts D rays II, 7 11,7 P rays Ul i, 11 V rays i,8 i, 8 A rays ii, 10 ii, 10 L.l. 38 38 L.tr. 7/1/2 7/1/2 Predorsal scales 15 15 Circumpeduncular scales 14 14 Transverse bands on body 7 7-8 L.l. = Lateral line longitudinal scales L.tr. = Lateral transverse scales Fig. 1: Barilius chatricensis sp. nov., MUMF 530/1, 86.4 mm (SL) 268 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002 Table 2 COMPARISON OF B. CHATR1CENSIS SP. NOV. WITH OTHER BARILINES NEW DESCRIPTIONS no d ii rx OO 3- o CN c9 Uh r- X NO r- X IT) NO in o^ OO rd iy) Uh (N (N in m 1 ° *53 -2 NO NO O NO d- CN CL, ■d1; NO ■d; o oo rvj rn "d" in CN o o CN CN in r~ Cd cq 2 I X a a U. Q -a 03 £ 3 X •2 ■2 a CO -o 3 U- o X a e §3 "§ CQ 3 i— o X ■*»* ~5b a £ S) CQ > o c <0 a £ s C3 -a o 03 52 4> >4— » a c3 X U oo m o CN CN d- O CN on N rd cd CN d- c n N o no cd Uh cd II 3 CN OO o X o 3 i m O T3 4-* X 4> 3 4) l— on (U O T3 "3 1-4 4—* 3 4> > C/5 C TO X) U, O s i : 5§ 3 ON Cd Cd NO ON in o Cd o oo ■d- X X m O o C/5 4-* o ~o 4) ^3 X 4) X 4-> X o c X 4) 3 4) s *5) ’ c o uT o 3 TO t+3 3 Uh o aj o X 4-H Cd oo m m m X X o X 4—4 X 3 TO C/5 4> o TO Uh C/5 "O U, O c Cd o >n in in o Cd oo o 4—4 c r> +-* r* c £ tS CN CN m r~- CN 00 d" CN 1 ON 4) O X V— (D > TO X '£ cd <5 — X o cd 4> i-i m oo o no d- — < (?) NO d" ir> r~- Tt CO (N oo d IN cd a. cn r-~ co cn co r- co £ ’T ^ o « ID VO ^ D< o o rs ONin-ooddOO doodt^votNood; cdcdNOcNooincNin N (N VO M N M Ti (N • i i i i i i • ON'd-cNOOmoo OooddvOroOvNO rn (\j - lod’d’cninnH 3 c« aj C cd O T3 “ C/5 -a X cd O 4) o X 4) X CQ X £ 3 a. a o o 3 op "53 X •§ 4) X 33 33 OX) W) 3 4) 4) 33 4) 4) 4) "5 E .S ■5 4> 4) 3 33 -a 4) O- ”3 X 3 cd 4> 3 3 X 4) a. ”3 X 3 3 33 x 'i 33 +-> 3 O w u o C/5 4) 3 o C/5 co on O JJ x >£ £ & Cu CQ c 4) C/5 4) i— a. h-j o Cu C/5 X 4) _cd 33 cd O *3 X 4-H y c "3 CO 4» 4> £ W) C1- i— j3 3 O x X 4-H J s 33 co X a) 4) >=r OX) O- _3 3 O -a X 4) _3 X o 3 C/5 Sbb CU 4) t; % c« 33 cd *3 X x u § of) o 3 c 2 1 4-> cd o 33 T3 4> v 4/ 75 .2 a 5 S 4) 3 4) X 3 4) C/5 d3 c3 v; Jc2 du 3 S X) J CN oo CO 4) J3 X 3C X3 5 s X X3 On i CO 4> ^3 X X c3 •a oo 4—4 4) 3 4) 3 X 4) > 4) 3 ]3) > o o 4-H OX) 3 i-4 4— > 3 'C o 3 3 4> 4-H O TO C/5 c co •5 _3 3 co 4> aj Q X •o 47 3 3 4) 4> 4) X O •o TO Uh X CO 4) T-5 4-H 4> 3 1 S X 4) 3 3 'op X uT Uh o o X 4-H *3 O cd "O X O 3 CO 4) O X *3 co a> £ ’™' ON 1 OO 3 X E u. 4-H 3 4> > X 3 3 X u O E -O 4-h ‘E 3 X 4) 3 4) Uh 3 c .£ ^ OX) c/i • r: a o "S c 3 (3 45 ^ X 4> 3 3 'op Uh uT £ — co 4) O X *3 Uh cn ”0 E E x 4—1 3 4» > r-; TO X o £ -O 4) ^3 3 c a 3 ^ 3 3 3 X 3 3 "5b W 'C ^ o 4—1 O 3 3 X co 4) O "O 3 i— < c .£ « OX) ^ "C co o 13 z: X £ o X 3 4) .£ oo cS 4> *4 .9 o — CO t O a £ o S 0 3 2 3 X C/5 C/5 C/5 X5 3 3 X a, J3 "5 5 *° g 3 o 3 X X X TO *3 "3 Uh O Uh O C/5 -o 3 4> O 4) TO > O - <4-4 <+H X o O _o _o CO co on C! 3 3 4> 4> a 4— > X. H w w o CO ^ .9 § SS •r 4> £ 22 t> 13 3 > , CO 3 3 X 3 U *3 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002 269 NEW DESCRIPTIONS having a longer head, shorter predorsal length, shorter and shallower caudal peduncle, wider mouth, fewer predorsal scales and absence of barbels on the snout. The new species is also distinct from B. dogarsinghi in colour pattern and extension of fins (See Table 2). It also differs from B. barna (Ham.) in that the maxilla does not reach the base of pectoral fin and the last dorsal fin ray, being short, does not reach the caudal peduncle. Dorsal fin commences midway between the eye and base of caudal fin in B. barna , whereas it does not commence midway between eye and base of caudal fin in B. chatricensis. Lateral line complete with 39-42 scales, predorsal scales 16 in B. barna , whereas in B. chatricensis the lateral line is complete with 38 scales and predorsal scale 15. B. barna has 7-11 well defined vertical dark bars and flanks with 7-9 narrow deep blue vertical bands, whereas in B. chatricensis there are only 7-8 distinct dark blue bands. The new species also differs from B. bendelisis (Ham.) in lateral line scales numbering 40-45; predorsal scales are 18-20; 2 pairs of barbels; 8-12 dark bands and poorly developed tubercles. Barilius guttatus Day and B. bola (Hamilton) were reported by Menon (1952) and Menon (1954) respectively, from Manipur. These species are, however, included in the genus Raiamas Jordan by Howes (1980) in view of their greatly expanded kinethmoid, and low and shallow jaws. They are easily separated from Refer Hamilton, F. ( 1 822): An account of the fishes found in the river Ganges and its branches. Archibald, Constable & Co., Edinburgh and London, pp. 405. Hora, S.L. (1921): Fish and fisheries of Manipur with some observations on those of the Naga hills. Rec. Indian. Mus. 22(3): 165-214. Howes, G.J. (1980): The anatomy, phylogeny and classification of bariline cyprinid fishes. Bull. Br. Mus. nat. Hist. (Zool.) 37(3): 129-198. Jayaram, K.C. (1981): The freshwater fishes of India, other bar i lines of the region by their long gape, extending behind the orbit. Although, Howes (op cit.) did not examine B. dogarsinghi , it appears that this species along with the species under description belong to the second subgroup of the genus Barilius , exemplified by B. gatensis in which the body is deep, jaws short, barbels a single pair or absent, and tubercles large, and well developed tubercles. Comparative Material: Barilius dogarsinghi Hora: ZSI (Zoological Survey of India) / F-2208/2, 3 specimens, from Manipur (No date or collector’s name) Barilius dogarsinghi Hora, MUMF - 360, 10 specimens from Chakpi stream, Manipur, coll. W. Vishwanath and Manoj (No date). Barilius barna (Ham.) ZSI/ 1 2038, ZSI/ 12042, 2 specimen from Banor R. Deoli Ajmere, Mewara, coll. Biddulph & Museum collectors (No date). Barilius bendelisis (Ham.) ZSI/ 4233, 2 specimens from Barak Kangjup, Manipur, coll. A.G.K. Menon on l.ii.1953. Acknowledgements We thank the Director, Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata for permission to examine the type specimen of Barilius dogarsinghi Hora and Barilius barna (Ham.). We also thank the Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India, for financial assistance. E N C E S Pakistan, Bangladesh, Burma & Sri Lanka, a hand book. Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta: 475 pp. Menon, A.G.K. (1954): Further observations on the fish fauna of Manipur State. Rec. Indian Mus. 52: 21- 26. Menon, M.A.S. (1952): On a collection of fish from Manipur, Assam. Rec. Indian Mus. 50: 21-26. Talwar, P.K. & A.G. Jhingran (1991): Inland fishes of India and adjacent countries. Vol. 1 . Oxford & IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi. Pp. 54 1 . 270 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 99(2), AUG. 2002 A NEW SPECIES OF EXACUM L., GENTIAN ACEAE, FROM AGASTHIYAMALAI (POTHIGAI), SOUTHERN WESTERN GHATS, INDIA1 R. Gopalan2 ( With one text-figure ) Key words: Exacum klackenbergii sp. nov., Agasthiyamalai, South Western Ghats A new species of Exacum , from Agasthiyamalai (Pothigai), southern Western Ghats, India, is described and illustrated. Exacum klackenbergi sp. nov. A Exacum wightianum Arn. caulibus lignosis, teretibus (non alatis); foliis distincte petiolatis, ellipticis, apice enciforme acuminatis; antheris oblongis, ad basim sagittatis differt. Holotypus ( R . Gopalan 88726, CAL) and isotypi ( R . Gopalan 88726, MH — num. acc. 163946-48) in Sangumuthirai, Pothigaimalai (Agasthiyamalai) in ditione Tirunelveli in statu Tamil Nadensi, India, ad altitudinum c. 1,500 m, die 5.ii.l989 lecti. Allied to E. wightianum Am. but differs in the stem being woody, terete (not winged), leaves distinctly petioled, elliptic, ensiformly acuminate at apex and anthers oblong, sagittate at base. Herb, to 70 cm high, divaricately or erecto- patently branched; internodes varying in length, shorter than leaves; stems woody, terete at base, minutely striate towards apex; branchlets 4-angled. Leaves opposite, simple; petioles to 1.2 cm long, rounded abaxially, canaliculate abaxially (not amplexicaul); lamina elliptic, 2-6.5 x 0.9-2. 1 cm, attenuate at base, entire and revolute along margins, acuminate or ensiformly acuminate (acumen to 15 mm long) at apex, coriaceous, 3-nerved at base; midrib prominent beneath, minutely grooved above; lateral nerves 2, prominent beneath, slightly raised above. Floral leaves 2; petioles to 4 mm long; lamina 'Accepted April, 2000 2Botanical Survey of India, Coimbatore 64 1 003, Tamil Nadu, India. elliptic, 4-25 x 1-1 1 mm, attenuate at base, entire and revolute along margins, acuminate (acumen to 5 mm long) at apex. Inflorescence a terminal cyme (rarely solitary, axillary); peduncles and pedicels 4-angled, drooping, minutely winged; bracts 2, ovate, 3-5 x 0.7-2 mm, cuneate to attenuate at base, entire, acuminate at apex. Flowers zygomorphic, bisexual. Calyx 5-lobed; lobes coalescent to 3 mm from base, ovate- lanceolate, 13-15 x 4-5.5 mm, subequal, gradually narrowing towards apex, winged; wings (semi) cordate at base, distinctly nerved. Corolla blue, yellow at throat; tube 6-8 mm long; lobes 5, quincuncialis, broadly elliptic, 18-31 x 8-19 mm, membranous, wavy along margins, acute at apex. Stamens 5, adnate to corolla tube; filaments 2-3 mm long, flat; anthers oblong (not bottle-shaped), 8-9 x 1.5-2 mm, sagittate at base, opening by longitudinal slit above, with a prominent papilla near the apex on dorsal side, basifixed. Ovary oblong- ovoid, c. 7 x 4 mm; style stout, terete, 12-13 (-14) mm long, curved; stigma slightly capitate, viscid. Holotype ( R . Gopalan 88726, CAL) and isotypes ( R . Gopalan 88726, MH - Acc. No. 163946-48) were collected from Sangumuthirai, Pothigaimalai (Agasthyamalai) in Tirunelveli district, Tamil Nadu, 1,500 m, 5.ii.l989. Etymology: The species is named in honour of Dr. Jens Klackenberg, Botanical Institute, University of Stockholm, Sweden, for his valuable monograph on the paleotropical genus Exacum L. (Gentianaceae). JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002 271 NEW DESCRIPTIONS Fig. 1: Excicum klackenbergi sp. nov., A. Branchlet, B. Calyx, C. Corolla spreadout with stamens, D. Stamen (Front & Lateral views), E. Pistil 272 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002 NEW DESCRIPTIONS Acknowledgements I thank Dr. P. Daniel, Deputy Director, Botanical Survey of India (BSI), Coimbatore, for facilities, encouragement and critically going through the manuscript, and Dr. V.J. Nair, Scientist Emeritus, BSI, Coimbatore for the Latin diagnosis. I thank Dr. A.N. Henry, Scientist Emeritus, BSI, Coimbatore, for valuable suggestions. JOURNAL . BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002 273 THREE NEW SPECIES FROM THE SPIDER FAMILIES AMAUROBIIDAE, THOMISIDAE AND SALTICIDAE (ARANEAE: ARACHNIDA) FROM INDIA' D.B. Bastawade2 ( With twenty-eight text-figures) Key words: Araneae, Amaurobiidae, new record, Indian main land, Families, Thomisidae, Salticidae, new species, Amaurobius indicus , Camericus bipunctatus, Myrmarachne dirangicus Three new species of spiders have been described with first report of the Family Amaurobiidae from the Indian main land from the Maharashtra State as Amaurobius indicus. Additional two new species Camericus bipunctatus , Myrmarachne dirangicus , have been described under the families Thomisidae and Salticidae respectively and reported from Arunachal Pradesh, India. The detail descriptions and diagnostic illustrations have been provided for easy identification with key characters and allied species respectively. Studies on the spider fauna of British India has been dealt with by many European Arachnologists namely Thorell, Simon, Stoliczka, Cambridge to Pocock and later by many Indians such as Narayana, Basu and more recently by Tikader, Sadana, Patel, Malhotra, Gajbe, Bal, Biswas and Reddy among others. Considering the wide variety of habits inhabited by spiders the present information seems scanty and scarce, and needs more study to understand the diversity amongst spiders. This paper is based on recent survey explorations made for collections in various parts of India. The Family Amaurobiidae is being reported for the first time from the mainland. Tikader ( 1 977) reported it earlier from the Andaman Islands. The Thomisid genus Camericus has so far been known from only two species (Tikader 1980). A third species is recorded here with its full description and illustrations. The Salticid genus Myrmarachne is being reported for the first time from Arunachal Pradesh by a new species. ‘Accepted February, 2000 Zoological Survey of India, Western Regional Station, PCNTDA, Rawet Road, Sector 29, Akurdi, Pune 41 1 044, Maharashtra, India. Family: Amaurobiidae Amaurobius indicus sp. nov. (Figs 1-12) General: Dark blackish-brown to yellowish-brown in colour, ventral portion lighter; dorsum entirely covered with scutum in both male and female (Fig. 1) but the ventral collar extends posteriorly up to 2/3 rd portion. All legs armed below with a row of paired spines on Tibiae and Metatarsi. Male with much elongated and shallow cymbium, and bulging paracymbium at the base. Measurements (in mm): Total length 8.00; Cephalothorax 3.8 long, 2.3 wide; Abdomen 4.2 long, 3.8 wide. Cephalothorax: Longer than wide, entire surface rough with fine granulation and without hair, median anterior portion high with high clypeus, eight eyes placed in two rows, laterals smaller and close to each other, anterior medians larger than remaining, ocular quad almost as wide as long; Cephalothoracic sternum broad and pointed posteriorly, labium longer than wide and endites deeply curved on inner portion (Fig. 3), Chelicerae robust, bulging anteriorly on basal segment, armed with 3 on promargin and a row of 9-10 teeth on retromargin of fang furrow, fang 274 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002 NEW DESCRIPTIONS Figs 1-12: Amaurobius indicus sp. nov. 1. Female, dorsal aspects (legs omrnitted); 2. Abdomen, lateral aspects; 3. Cephalothoracic sternum, labium and endite, ventral aspects; 4. Chelicera, lateral aspects; 5. Dentition on cheiicerae, promarginal aspects; 6. Basal segment, mesal aspects; 7. Male palp, lateral aspects; 8. Male palp, mesal aspects; 9. Female palp, dorsal aspects; 10. Tarsus IV, lateral aspects; 11. Female epigyne, ventral aspects; 12. Female genitalia, dorsal aspects JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002 275 NEW DESCRIPTIONS more than half the length of basal segment, bent on middle portion and acutely pointed (Figs 4- 6); Palps simple, elongated, anned ventral ly with 5-6 longer setae on Tibiae and Tarsi, and 5-6 Trichobothries in a cluster placed almost at the centre on external surface, in both male and female (Fig. 9); Palps in male (Paratype) much elongated with shallow cymbium, armed with few longer setae and thickly clothed with short hair, paracymbium bulging at the base of cymbium (Fig. 7) with a pair of small spikes, a pair of short, straight but stout apophysis present on outside of Tibiae, outermost being longer and stouter (Fig. 8). Legs I-IV comparatively thin, long, smooth and shining, armed ventral ly with 9-9, 8-8, 3-2, 3-2 anteriorly directed paired spine rows (Fig. 10); Leg formula 1432, calamistrum present on III & IV pairs, more prominently noticeable on 1 /6th distal portions. Scapula prominent on III & IV pairs while claw tufts fringed prominently on all legs. Abdomen: Longer than wide, dorsum covered with smooth scutum without any hair, a weak chitinous collar present on l/3rd anterior portion along with pedicel in female. Female genitalia with a pair of clear dark spots (Fig. 1 1 ), internal genitalia with dark dumbbell shaped sacs (Fig. 12). The anterior l/3ld chitinous collar continues ventro-posteriorly up to 2/3 rd of abdominal portion in male, male palp complicated (Fig. 8). Type data: Holotype 1 9, Paratypes 1 d\ 2 9 9 , (2 9 9 genitalia dissected and kept in microvials separately), all in 70% rectified spirit, will be deposited in the National Collections, Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata. Type locality: 40 kms, northeast of Khalapur, near Matheran, Dist. Raigad (Colaba), Maharashtra, India. Coll: Dr. D.B. Bastawade, 1 3 .xii. 1 987. Distribution: So far known only from type locality. Etymology: Named after country of collection and distribution locality i.e. India. Key to Am a urobius indicus sp. nov . — Anterior row of eyes more procurved, anterior and posterior lateral eyes placed together, ocular quad almost square, tibiae and metatarsi of I pair of legs armed below with 9-8 and 9-9 paired spines in male and female, leg formula 1432, male palp with elongated shallow cymbium and a bulging paracymbium with two short curved spikes and a pair of tibial apophysis, outer being elongated and straight than inner, female genitalia with a pair of dumbbell shaped darker sacs Amaurobius indicus sp. nov. Anterior row of eyes less procurved, anterior and posterior lateral eyes placed away from each other, ocular quad almost rectangular, tibiae and metatarsi of I pair of legs with 4-4 and 6-6 paired spines in male and female respectively, leg formula 1423, male palp with short and deeper cymbium with a simple coiled paracymbium and with a stout curved tibial apophysis, female genitalic sacs triangular in shape and clear ones Amaurobius andamanensis Tikader Family: Thomisidae Camericus bipunctatus sp. nov. (Figs 13-19) General: Crab-like appearance, dark brown to blackish, lighter on abdomen with a pair of conspicuous light yellowish spots on mid- dorsal portion, legs robust and dark brown to blackish-brown (Fig. 13). Measurements (in mm): Total length 7.00; Cephalothorax 2.90 long, 2.20 wide; Abdomen 4.10 long, 3.80 wide. Cephalothorax: Wider than long, uniformly dark brown, more darker on lateral portions, stalks of lateral eyes conspicuously 276 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002 NEW DESCRIPTIONS 18 1 mm I- — < Figs 13-19: Camericus bipunctatus sp. nov. 13. Female, dorsal aspects (legs ommitted); 14. Cephalothoracic sternum, labium and endite, ventral aspects; 15. Chelicera, dorsal aspects; 16. Chelicera, ventral aspects; 17. Male palp, mesal aspects; 18. Female epigyne, ventral aspects; 19. Female genitalia, dorsal aspects JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002 277 NEW DESCRIPTIONS yellow, entire surface finely punctate, sparsely and finely rugose, more or posterior portion, clothed with fine short hair, ocular quad longer than wide, both the rows recurved and anterior lateral eyes situated on shorter stalks and posterior lateral not placed nearer to the posterior medians and small in size (Fig. 13), sparsely clothed with short hair; Cephalothoracic sternum small, inverted pear shaped pointed posteriorly, labium small narrow, longer than wide and endites curved inside on anterior portion (Fig. 14); Chelicerae dorsoventrally compressed on basal segments, narrow distally, finely granular on dorsal portions, weakly and sparsely clothed with short hair, promargin outstretched and armed with 6 denticles (Figs 15, 16), boss small, triangular fang very short, less than 1 /3 rd of basal segment (Fig. 15). Palps short and slightly flattened on tarsi, clothed with short hail*. Legs I & II longer and robust, darker than III & IV and also thickly clothed with short setal hair on ventral and interior portions of Tibiae and Tarsi of I & II, all legs finely punctate, rugose on ventral portion of femora, sparsely haired with short hair. All legs armed with a pair of claw anterior being stronger. Abdomen: Almost elliptical, longer than wide, soft, dorsal portion with a pair of conspicuous, round, yellowish-brown mid-dorsal spots with a small central reddish dot along with three smaller spots, single on anterior median portion, while a pair between the larger median spot and a central smaller spot (Fig. 13), dorsal portion other than these spots covered with serially beaded lines but lighter in color (Fig. 13), entire body clothed with short setae. Two pairs of short and stumpy spinnerets present on posterio-ventral portion. Genitalia as in Figs 18 & 19. Measurements (in mm): Total length 5.65; Cephalothorax 2.15 long, 1.90 wide; Abdomen 3.50 long, 3.10 wide; Male palp with short cymbium and thin minute transparent paracymbium (Fig. 17). Type-data: Holotype 1 9 , Paratypes 6 9 9, all in 70% rectified spirit ( 9 genitalia dissected and kept in micro vial). Male paratype smaller in body size, also lighter in colour. Type locality: Near Tulsi Lake, Sanjay Gandhi National Park, Near Mumbai, Maharashtra, India collected from under loose bark of a fallen tree. Coll. Dr. D.B. Bastawade, 27.ii.1997. Distribution: Thane, Nasik (1 9), and Dhulia districts, Maharashtra and West-Kameng District, Arunachal Pradesh, India. (Specimens collected from Arunachal Pradesh are small in body size and paler in body colour). Etymology: Named after the two prominent spots present on the dorsal surface of the abdomen. Key to Camericus bipunctatus sp. nov. — Anterior and posterior median eyes placed very close to anterior median portion and situated away from lateral eyes, dorsal surface of abdomen bears a pair of conspicuous elliptical spots in the middle with dark reddish central portion and rest of the abdomenal portion decorative with light beaded lines, I and II pairs of legs thickly clothed ventrally on tibiae and tarsi and uniformly brown to blackish in colour, Female epigyne and male palp structurally different Camericus bipunctatus sp. nov. — Anterior and posterior median eyes placed more on lateral portion close to lateral eyes, dorsal surface of black abdomen decorative with an inverted chalk white anchor shaped patch, tibiae and tarsi of I and II legs not so thickly clothed and patched with black in female, female epigyne and male palp structurally different... Camericus formosus Thorell Family: Salticidae Myrmarachne dirangicus sp. nov. (Figs 20-28) General: Ant-like spider, blackish-brown, 278 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002 NEW DESCRIPTIONS Figs 20-28: Myrmarachne dirangicus sp. nov. 20. Female, dorsal aspects (legs omitted); 21. Cepnalothorax, lateral aspects; 22. Cephalothoracic sternum, labium and endite, ventral aspects; 23. Chelicera, dorsal aspects; 24. Chelicera, ventral aspects; 25. & 26. Tarsi I & IV, ventral aspects; 27. Female epigyne, ventral aspects; 28. Female genitalia, dorsal aspects JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002 279 NEW DESCRIPTIONS more blackish on cephalic region while light brownish on thoracic region, abdomen with two pairs of narrow lateral whitish bands, median anterior portion darker with a blackish patch on posterior portion (Fig. 20), light brown to yellowish-brown on ventral portion; Chelicerae brown, palps dark blackish on distal segments, legs darker on exterior margins and on joints, otherwise pale brown. Anterior median eyes larger than others and pearly white. Measurements (in mm): Total length 7.10; Cephalothorax 2.90 long, 2.00 wide; Abdomen 4.20 long, 2.00 wide. Cephalothorax: Longer than wide, cephalic region high and flat, posteriorly sloped into a shallow constriction and continues posteriorly into thoracic region, further narrowing posteriorly in to a pedicel (Fig. 21), entire surface smooth, clypeus narrow and not high, eight eyes placed in two rows, anterior two pairs placed in front in a row,- median pair being larger and pearly white; posterior row deeply procurved, the medians being shifted much laterally almost in a same line to posterior laterals and much smaller in size (Fig. 20), ocular trapezium wider than long; Cephalothoracic sternum elongated and acutely pointed posteriorly, labium elongated with lateral margins parallel, rounded on anterior margin, endites narrowed behind to accommodate labium (Fig. 22); Chelicerae depressed from sides, almost quadrangular, with a ridge on interior surface, basal segments armed with promarginal and retromarginal row of 10 and 4 minute teeth respectively (Figs 23, 24), fangs pointed and almost l/3rd of basal segment. Palps short as compared to body length, dorsoventrally flat and expanded, fringed ventrally with short setae and other portion covered with hair, a long Trichobothridial hair present on proximal portion of Tibiae. Legs I- IV thin, in 4312 formulae, Tibiae I with 4 pairs, and II with 2 pairs of anteriorly directed ventral spines (Figs 25, 26), Tarsomeres fringed with short setae. Abdomen: Longer than wide, entirely smooth, leathery except the Epyginal portion, covered with short hair, with two lateral oblique bands (Fig. 27), internal genitalia with a pair of sacs, curved on inner portions and each sac bears two dark spots in it (Figs 27, 28). Type Data: Holotype 1 $ , Paratype 5 9 9. Holotype 9 dissected for genitalia and kept separately in micro vial, all in 70% rectified spirit, will be deposited in National Collection Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata. Type Locality: 15 kms O’ Dirang, West- Kameng District, Arunachal Pradesh, India. Coll. Dr. D.B. Bastawade, 22.ix.1990. Distribution: So far known only from type locality. Etymology: Named after the type locality Dirang. Key to Myrmarachne dirangicus sp. nov. Cephalothoracic region broad and short than the abdomen, cephalic and thoracic junction not much constricted and shallow, cephalic region blackish with white tinge, whereas thoracic region brownish, the abdomenal coloration and female genitalia entirely different structurally Myrmarachne dirangicus sp. n. Cephalothoracic region narrow and more elongated than abdomen, cephalic and thoracic junction much constricted and deep, cephalic and thoracic regions totally brownish, colour pattern on abdomen and female genitalia entirely different structurally.... Myrmarachne bengalensis Tikader Acknowledgements I thank Dr. J.R.B. Alfred, Director, Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata for permission and encouragements to take up and complete this work at WRS, Pune. I am also grateful to Dr. M.S. Pradhan, Scientist-SE, WRS, Pune for providing me the necessary facilities to 280 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002 NEW DESCRIPTIONS undertake this work. I thank Mr. P.W. Garde, Artist Gr. I, WRS, Pune for the drawings, and Refer Tikader, B.K. ( 1 977): Studies on spider fauna of Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Indian Ocean. Rec. zoo/. Surv. India 72: 153-212. my mother and wife for their constant co- operation during the work. N C E S Tikader, B.K. (1980): Fauna of India, Araneae I: Thomisidae. Zoological Survey of India, Delhi, pp. 247. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002 281 REVIEWS 1. WATERBIRDS OF NORTHERN INDIA, by J.R.B. Alfred, Arun Kumar, RC. Tak and J.P. Sati, 2001. Published by the Director, Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata. Pp. xxiv + 239, (21 x 14 cm). Price Rs. 200/- paperback, Rs. 750/- hard bound. There is a pressing need, in India, to bring out regional bird guides. The waterbirds of northern india has partially fulfilled this lacuna. Of the 245 waterbirds from India, this book covers 180 species recorded from Northern India (Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, Uttaranchal, Delhi, Chandigarh and Uttar Pradesh). It claims to be an illustrated field guide, but not ail birds are illustrated and some of the illustrations are sub-standard (e.g. Plates 7, 44). The book is full of valuable scientific data, but the presentation needs improvement. For instance, the size of the bar charts in Plate 41 could have been larger for better readability. Frequent spelling mistakes further decrease the quality of this otherwise useful book. The authors have painstakingly described species with common and scientific names, size, status (resident, winter migrant, vagrant etc.), diagnostic characters, habits and habitat, food, and distribution. However, it is rather strange that purely dry and arid zone species (e.g. Indian courser Cursorius coromandelicus, stone-curlew Burhinus oedicnemus) are also included in this list. Lesser snow goose Anser caerulescens , of which we have only one confirmed record from India (Mundkur et al. 1992), has been included on the basis of a newspaper report. Someone claimed to have seen this north American species at Suklina Lake in Chandigarh, which must have been a pair of the white variety of domestic goose Anser indicus that we find in many public gardens and ponds. Incidentally, Sukhna lake is a man-made artificial wetland, more appropriate for noisy picnickers than a stray snow goose! Distribution maps of each species add value to this book, but unfortunately some are not accurate. The authors have perhaps depended too much on published records and not on intuition. When one depends totally on published records. then such maps show the distribution of ornithologists or recorders and not of birds. For instance, wigeon Anas penelope is suddenly shown absent in eastern Uttar Pradesh (p. 77), although this region has large wetlands; this species should be present there! Incidentally, there are very few bird watchers in this region. When this species is recorded all over India, then why should be it absent in eastern Uttar Pradesh? Similarly, shoveller Anas clypeata (p. 78) is also shown enigmatically absent in eastern Uttar Pradesh. The pheasant-tailed jacana Hydrophasianus chirurgus (p. 103) is absent in a small portion of northeastern Uttar Pradesh while it has been recorded across the border in Nepal as “fairly common on the Kosi marshes and proved breeding there” (Inskipp and Inskipp 1991, p. 140). I have reported it from Sitadwar and Pyagpur wetlands in Bahraich district of Uttar Pradesh (Scott 1989). Similarly, the distribution of the white-tailed lapwing Vanellus leucurus, the lapwing V. vanellus , grey-headed lapwing V cinereus — birds likely to occur in any suitable area in northern Indian — is shown as disjunct (perhaps more to do with the presence of birdwatchers in these areas than the actual distribution of birds). There are many such mistakes in the maps. In case of common birds, likely to be found in all suitable areas, it is better to give a general distribution map, and if necessary mark out important sites or extralimital distribution. The great white-bellied heron Ardea insignis , a very rare bird of Eastern India, has been shown occurring somewhere in the Uttar Pradesh-Haryana border, but the full reference is not given. Who recorded this species in Northern India? Unfortunately, the book is silent on such matters. The black-necked stork Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus (p. 55), on which I 282 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002 REVIEWS did some work a couple of years ago and prepared a distribution map (Rahmani 1989), has been shown occurring only in Jammu, Himachal and north Punjab, but not in Uttar Pradesh where the largest known population occurs. In the revised edition, some of the maps could be redrawn, and only those stray or vagrant Refer Inskipp, C. & T. Inskipp (1991): A Guide to the Birds of Nepal. 2nd Edn, Christopher Helm, U.K. Mundkur, T., P. Pandya, N. Jhala, N. Parvez & S. Khachar (1992): Snow goose Anser caerulescens — an addition to the avifauna. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 88: 446-447. records should be included that have been accepted by scientific journals. Unproven records (e.g. lesser snow goose, white-bellied heron) should be removed. Newspaper reports have no place in a scientific book. M ASAD R. RAHMANI : N C E s Rahmani, A.R. (1989): Status of the black-necked stork Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus in the Indian subcontinent. Forktail 5: 99-110. Scott, D.A. (Ed.): A directory of Asian Wetlands. IUCN Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, U.K. 2. ETHNOBOTANY OF THE PRIMITIVE TRIBES IN RAJASTHAN by Prabhakar Joshi, 1 995. Published by Printwell & Rupa Books Pvt. Ltd., India. Pp. xv (not numbered) + 314 (24 cm x 16 cm). 14 coloured pages + 18 pp. illustrations. Price Rs. 750.00/S 50/ £ 30. This book is dedicated to Dr. S.K. Jain, pioneer and founder of the Ethnobotanical Society in India. It has a foreword by Dr. Pushpangadan and two pages devoted to acknowledgements! The book, which is based on a doctoral thesis submitted to the University of Rajasthan, has 16 chapters and contains information not only on plants, but in the author’s own words, has preponderant bearing on plants. A large part of it is irrelevant in scientific context. It speaks about false beliefs and superstitions, but provides few guidelines for future work or scientific inputs based on the author’s studies. 75% of the information in the book looks outdated when one refers to the bibliography and information available in our state gazetteers. A total of 172 plants of Rajasthan, used by tribals for various purposes, are mentioned, of which 72 are cultivated. The list of plants used for fencing, repelling porcupines, rats and crows, fish-poisoning, those yielding minor forest products like gum, oil-seeds, fruit, bark and flowers of commercial use are given with their local names like Ratanjyot, Swarnakshiri, and scientific botanical equivalents. Botanical names in the entire text are without author names. The chapter on food plants contains a list of 92 edible plants including 15 famine food plants (reported after Maharda, 1985). Out of these, at least two plants Celastrus paniculatus Wi lid. and Mucuna pruriens Hook.f. are not safe for human consumption. C. paniculatus contains neuro-active compounds which in very minor doses are used for treating nervous system disorders. These compounds can cause nervous system disorders and even insanity in excess doses. Similarly, M. pruriens seed contains L-dopa, which is used for treating Parkinson’s disease and is known to be harmful for normal human beings if consumed regularly. Seeds of Terminalia bellerica not only cause intoxication, but also act as violent purgatives and sometimes prove fatal. In fact, the author does not comment on the folklore in the context of the current knowledge of plants and their medicinal, economic or commercial utility. JO UREAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2). AUG. 2002 283 REVIEWS The book lists 100 ethnomedicinal plants useful against 75 different diseases. The author mentions some primitive methods of treatment and suggests some advanced methods, which do not sound logical and may be left for consideration by medical experts. The tribals of Rajasthan have important plants related to ceremonies, religion and superstitions, related to their deities, their myths, and for medicinal uses. The book may be a good entertainer, but the amusement is a little too costly. ■ M.R. ALMEIDA 3. PARASITIC HYMENOPTERA AND BIOLOGICAL CONTROL by T.C. Narendran, 2001. Published by Palani Paramount Publications, Tamil Nadu. Pp. 190 (22.5 x 14.5 cm). Price Rs. 300; US $ 50. Written for specialists by a specialist, the book contains keys to superfamilies and families with figures to most couplets. For each family a habitus drawing, a diagnosis, biological notes, major points on biological control, systematics and pertinent references are provided. Classification of major divisions of Hymenoptera, classification and general morphology of parasitic Hymenoptera, details on collecting and preserving, packing and shipping are also provided. Besides these, a separate chapter is provided on the importance of parasitic Hymenoptera in biological control of insect pests. The book will be a valuable source of reference for parasitic Hymenoptera, their host-parasite relationships and relation to biological control, not only to entomologists, agricultural scientists and biological control workers, but also to post- graduate students of entomology. More than 120 illustrations are provided. The foreword has been written by the highly respected entomologist Prof. M.S. Mani. ■ GAYATRI UGRA 284 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 1. ON SOME LARGE-SIZED RED PANDAS AILURUS FULGENS F. CUVIER ( With a text-figure) The red or lesser panda A ilurus fulgens F. Cuvier 1825 is a small carnivore rather poorly known, at least in the wild. It is found in the Himalayas in Nepal, India, Bhutan, northern Myanmar and China (Choudhury 1997, Corbet and Hill 1992). Its distribution in India has been mapped, and an interesting population discovered in Meghalaya (Choudhury 1997). During field surveys in northeastern India since the early 1980s, I have come across innumerable evidences of the red panda, from live animals to skins and stuffed specimens. Whenever 1 saw a skin or a stuffed animal, I took measurements. Here I report some large specimens, much larger than the known records. The maximum recorded length of the red panda was 62.5 cm for head and body and 50 cm for tail (MacDonald 1984, Prater 1980). In 1996, I examined a skin at Tura in the Garo Hills, Fig. 1: Map showing the localities mentioned in the text Meghalaya. The panda was shot in Nokrek National Park (approx. 25° 27' N, 90° 18' E) in the early 1960s, but the condition of the skin was excellent. It measured: Head + body length = 73 cm, Tail length = 43 cm (Choudhury 1 997). It became the largest known specimen (skin) in the world. In May 2000, I came across a large skin at Tenga in West Kameng district, Arunachal Pradesh. It measured: Head + body length = 72 cm. Tail length = 50 cm. It was reportedly killed by road workers at Mandla Phudung area (c. 27° 16' N, 92° 06' E) in the same district in 1998. While its head + body length was slightly smaller than the Garo Hills specimen, overall length made it the largest ever recorded. However, this record was shortlived. In May 2000 again, I saw another huge skin at Sangti, also in the same district. On enquiry, I learnt that it had been brought from Chayangtajo area (c. 27° 45' N, 93° O' E) in East Kameng district, where it was killed by the Sulung tribals. It measured: Head + body length = 79 cm, Tail length = 43 cm. While in overall length the skin was the same as the previous one, the head and body were amazingly huge, the largest known in the world so far. Most intriguing was the fact that it still had some whitish colouring on its dorsum, indicating that it was not adult. One could imagine its size had it lived to adulthood! I thank J. Datta, Mrs Lau, Bir Bahadur Gurung and Dr Tacho for help and for allowing me to examine the skins. June 1,2001 ANWARUDDIN CHOUDHURY The Rhino Foundation for nature in NE India, C/o The Assam Co. Ltd, Bamunimaidam, Guwahati 781 021, Assam, India. Eds — It must be noted that these are measurements of skins and not of live animals or measurements taken before skinning. JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002 285 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES References Choudhury, A. U. (1997): Red panda Ailurus fulgens F. Cuvier in the northeast with an important record from Garo Hills. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 94(1): 145-147. Corbet, G.B. & J.E. Hill (1992): The mammals of the Indomalayan Region: a systematic review. Oxford University Press, Oxford. MacDonald, D. (Ed.) (1984): The Encyclopaedia of Mammals. Vols. 1&2, George Allen & Unwin, London & Sydney. Prater, S.H. (1980): The Book of Indian Animals. Repr. with corrections, Bombay Natural History Society, Mumbai. 2. HUNTING ATTEMPT BY NILGIRi MARTEN MARTES GWATKINSl HORSFIELD, FAMILY MUSTEL1DAEJN PERIYAR TIGER RESERVE, KERALA On December 16, 2000, a group of 11 persons led by the first author were participating in population estimation of tiger and prey base in the Periyar Tiger Reserve. At about 1000 hrs, we chanced upon a group of four Nilgiri martens Martes gwatkinsi , trying to hunt a mouse deer ( Tragulus meminna ), which we watched for about 10 minutes. The wounded mouse deer was moving about in a small pool of water with a steep bank on one side, and sandy dunes on the other sides. The martens had surrounded the pool, but did not venture into it. One marten tried to reach the mouse deer by moving down a root protruding into the pool from the bank. On sensing our presence, the martens fled into the forest. The second author followed one of them to about 1.5 m, and photographed it on a tree. Soon, however, the animal moved down to 3 m from him, jumped into the undergrowth and disappeared. Meanwhile, one of us took pictures of the mouse deer in the pool. This happened in a rainforest dominated by Cullenia exarillata, by a trek path connecting Vellimala and Thamara, at an elevation of about 1 ,500 m. The Nilgiri marten is listed in Schedule I of the Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972, and is endemic to the higher elevations of the Western Ghats. It has been rarely sighted, and even less is known about its feeding habits. February 20, 2001 JOJI JOHN MADHUKUMAR Periyar Tiger Reserve, Thekkady, Kerala 685 536, India. 3. POSSIBLE OCCURRENCE OF TIBET RED DEER CERVUS ELAPHUS WALIJCHI IN ARUNACHAL PRADESH ( With a text-figure) The Tibet red deer Cervus elaphus wallichi Cuvier 1823, also called the shou or Sikkim stag is a very rare and little known subspecies of the red deer C. elaphus . Once it was even thought to be extinct (Thornback 1978). At present, it is known only from southern Tibet (Schaller et al. 1996), though its original distribution included Bhutan also (Anon. 1976). During a visit to Bhutan in January 2001, 1 got reports of its possible occurrence in parts of Thrumshingla National Park, but no evidence was available. During field survey for wildlife in western Arunachal Pradesh, 1 could not get direct evidence of the presence of the species, although older people reported a large deer with branched antlers (more branches than those of the sambar Cervus unicolor ), which used to occur in the north. They called it shou The sambar was not uncommon on the south-facing slopes of the Himalaya, especially in the deep valleys, mainly 286 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Fig. 1 : Map showing the localities mentioned in the text and distribution of shou (Note: there is one more locality which currently holds the largest population farther north; distribution in Tibet after Schaller et at. 1996) below 2,000 m. In summer, it was recorded up to 2,600 in above msl (occasionally to c. 3,000 m) in the Himalaya in western Arunachal Pradesh. However, a report I received during my visit to Thingbu (27° 42' N, 92° 06' E) in Tawang district in May 2000 seemed to be an intriguing one, as it could be the only recent record of the shou in India. It was reported from north of Thingbu, very close to the India-China (Tibet) International Boundary on alpine pastures. A stag with “big” antlers was seen around noon at a place that was a six-hour trek from Thingbu (approx. 27° 47' N, 92° 06' E) in the summer of 1999 (Chombey Tsering of Thingbu, pers. comm.). The elevation of the place was more than 4,200 m above msl. The locals including the persons who sighted it had identified it as shou. During summer, many villagers move up with their domestic yaks, setting up seasonal camps at high elevation pastures, an example of transhumance. However, in recent years they had never came across any shou. They also said that the deer usually remains in open woodlands with stretches of grassy areas, but this sighting in a completely open grassy slope has surprised them and they observed it as long as it was within their sight. Occasional sighting of shou has also been reported from north of Magu about 4,000 m above msl (Perna Youndi of Jang, pers. comm.). Some Monpas of Tawang and northern areas of West Kameng, the main tribal group inhabiting western Arunachal Pradesh, often call all large deer as shou (including the sambar). However, sambar has different names among most of the Monpas, gasha in most of the areas and shawa in Zemithang area. But in that locality, JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002 287 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES north of Thingbu, high up on the alpine pastures of the Great Himalaya, the sambar is out of the question. Schaller et al. (1996) also mentioned that even in Tibet, it is confused with the white- lipped deer Cervus albirostris by the locals (as both are called sha by the Tibetans), but that is not the case here, as the range of albirostris is nowhere near the Indian border. From the map in Schaller et al. (1996), it appears that the upper reaches of the Subansiri river could still hold some potential shou habitat, as no survey has ever been carried out in that portion to date (Fig 1). Gee (1964) also suspected the presence of a few shou in the area. Dec. 7, 200 1 ANWARUDDIN CHOUDHURY The Rhino Foundation for nature in NE India, C/o The Assam Co. Ltd., Bamunimaidam, Guwahati 781 021, Assam, India. References Anon. (1976): Is the shou extinct? Oryx 13: 340. Gee, E.P. (1964): The Wild Life of India. St. James Place, London, pp. 183. Schaller, G.B.. W. Liu, & X. Wang (1996): Status of Tibet red deer. Oryx 30(4): 269-27 4. Thornback, J. (1978): Red Data Book. Vol. 1, Mammalia. IUCN, Morges, Switzerland. XL + 516 pp. 4. HIMALAYAN MARMOT MARMOTA BOBAK (MULLER) RESIGHTED AFTER EIGHT YEARS AT KYONGNOSLA ALPINE SANCTUARY, EAST SIKKIM The Himalayan marmot Marmota bobak has been regularly observed in the trans- Himalayan region of north Sikkim in Lhonak valley, Lashar and Yumesamdong valleys, and the Chho Lhamo plateau at altitudes from 4,500- 5,500 m. In July 1992, four adult marmots were recovered from captivity from Kerang on the Chho Lhamo plateau and from Pegong near Tsungthang in north Sikkim, but could not be released in the wild due to various logistic and other problems. They were brought to the Head Office of the Department of Forests, Environment & Wildlife at Deorali, Gangtok (1,500 m). They had been tied with wires and their teeth were broken. As the office had no facilities or experience to treat or keep them, they were taken for release almost immediately to a higher altitude, to the 31 sq. km Kyongnosla Alpine Sanctuary (c. 4,000 m) around 20 km from Gangtok on the way to Natu La in East Sikkim. There was no opportunity to age or sex them, as the animals were highly stressed and held in wooden cartons. The site of release within the sanctuary was at Namnang, beyond an area locally called Raja Dhunga, or King Rock. The sanctuary staff, Bishnu Kumar Sharma and Jeevan Kumar Rai, released the animals. They were infrequently observed in the area for a short period, after which they were not seen. It was presumed that the already traumatised animals did not survive in this unfamiliar terrain. However, one adult marmot was resighted on August 24, 2000 at 1645 hrs about 4 km from the site of release in the Sola Firing Range area. The same two staff who were patrolling the sanctuary, spotted the marmot. The animal emerged from beside a big rock, a short while after it stopped raining. They observed it for about 10 minutes from a distance of c. 50 m, feeding on grasses and herbs. It hid when approached. The spot was very close to the owner of a yak ‘goth’ — (cattle camp) Mr. Sangey Sherpa, whose son also saw it. He informed that another marmot had been sighted further up from this site. It might not have been such a good idea to introduce the injured animals to this sanctuary with predators like hill fox Vulpes vulpes and 288 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES yellowthroated marten Martes flavigula and with apparently no history of marmot occurrence (C. Lachungpa, pers. comm.). However, it is interesting to note that two may have survived the ordeal, and it is an indication that marmot life span in the wild could be at least eight years. 5. TWO WHALE RECORDS FROM Recently, the media reported two different occurrences of a large whale running aground in Tamil Nadu. The first of these instances took place in November 2000. Newspapers and television channels reported that a whale was stranded near Point Calimere. Their accounts said that the whale was stuck in mud and that it had been languishing there for 40 days or more. On November 14, the Coast Guard and others attempted to rescue the stricken animal and 1 was able to witness this effort from close quarters. The whale was stranded in c. 1 .25 m water at a location south of Point Calimere that took about an hour to reach by trawler. The bottom was clayey, and the water was quite brown and muddy. Further, the only parts of the whale that appeared frequently above the surface were its blowhole and snout. Nevertheless, over the course of the operation to save the creature, I was able to note the following features: Shape: slender and long. Length: about 12 m, roughly equal to that of the trawlers used to move it. Dorsal fin: triangular, backward slanting, about 30 cm high; trailing edge frayed. Placed at about two-thirds the total length of the whale, from the snout. Tail flukes: large. Flippers: could not be seen. Colour: black overall; belly white, possibly a little pink. Large white scars on the back between the blowhole and the fin. Rostral ridges: three distinct longitudinal ridges running from the blowhole towards the Feb. 27, 2001 USHA GANGULI-LACHUNGPA BISHNU LAL SHARMA Department of Forests, Environment & Wildlife, Government of Sikkim, Deorali, Gangtok 1ST 102, Sikkim, India. TAMIL NADU, SOUTHERN INDIA tip of the snout, the middle one considerably more raised than the other two. On the basis of these observations, I identified the stranded whale to be a Bryde’s whale Balaenoptera edeni. The three ridges on the top of the head are diagnostic (Jefferson et al. 1993, Leatherwood and Reeves 1983, Watson 1981). The second whale came ashore near Poothurai village of Kanyakumari district. On January 18, 2001, The Hindu carried an item about this whale. It said that a stranded whale was rescued by the villagers and officials, and had swum back to the sea. The Tamil newspaper Dinakaran carried a colour photograph of the whale on the same day, lying at the edge of the water. The caption said that the whale was “50 feet long and 10 feet high”. According to this paper, the whale was entangled in fishermen’s nets and was brought to the shore. The snout and right side (front part) of the whale are visible in the published photograph. The whale was evidently a humpback Megaptera novaeangliae : it had the throat grooves or ventral furrows characteristic of a rorqual; its flipper appeared long and narrow, and it had the unmistakable knobs on top of the head. Further, no ridge was visible along the midline on top of the head, and the colour of the animal was black and white. After intense search of the literature, I found only a few records of the Bryde’s whale and humpback whale from India: Bryde’s Whale i) Date not known, recorded by Blanford JOURNAL . BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 99(2). AUG. 2002 289 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES from the Bay of Bengal (De Silva 1987). ii) July 2. 1979, a 13 m specimen washed ashore at Beypore, Calicut (Lai Mohan 1992). iii) February 20, 1983, 13.52 m carcass found on an islet near Dhanushkodi Island, Gulf of Mannar (Lai Mohan 1992). iv) April 14, 1982, Leatherwood (1984) observed 7 Bryde’s whales on a cruise from Madras to Trincomalee. Humpback Whale i) January 23, 1941, 14.7 m (49 ft) long whale stranded on the Anjengo coast near Quilon (Mathew 1948). ii) January 15, 1988, 14.3 m long female specimen washed ashore near Kasaragod (La! Mohan 1992). Refer De Silva, RH.D.H. (1987): Cetaceans (Whales, Dolphins and Porpoises) recorded off Sri Lanka, India, from the Arabian Sea and Gulf, Gulf of Aden and from the Red Sea. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 84(3): 505525. Jefferson, T.A., S. Leatherwood & M.A. Webber (1993): Marine Mammals of the World, FAO Species Identification Guide. United Nations Environment Programme, Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations, Rome. Pp. 320. Lal Mohan, R.S. (1992): Observations on the whales Balaenoptera edeni , B. musculus and Megaptera novaeangliae washed ashore along the Indian coast with a note on their osteology. J. mar. biol. Ass. India 34: 253-255. Leatherwood, S. (1984): Further notes on cetaceans of iii) January 20, 1988, decomposed 15 m long female specimen found at Mavila Kadappuram, near Nileswaram, Kerala - drifted back into the sea after two days and appeared on January 24 at Thaikadappuram (Muthiah et al. 1988). I am not able to determine whether the last two records refer to different specimens or just to one. The limited information available on these species in India makes the present records noteworthy. May 15, 2001 KUMARAN SATHASIVAM 29 Jadamuni Koil Street, Madurai 625 001, Tamil Nadu, India. e n c e s Sri Lanka. Paper No. SC/36/06 presented to the International Whaling Commission Scientific Committee. 12 pp. Leatherwood, S. & R.R. Reeves (1983): The Sierra Club Handbook of Whales and Dolphins. Sierra Club, San Francisco. 302 pp. Mathew, A.P. (1948): Stranding of a whale Megaptera nodosa on the Travancore coast in 1943. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 47(4): 732-733. Muthiah, C., S. Mohammed, G. Bhatkal & B. Melinmani (1988): On the stranding of a Humpback Whale in the North Kerala coast. Mar Fish. Infor. Serv. T&E Ser. 55:12. Watson, L. (1981): Sea Guide to Whales of the World. Hutchinson, London. Pp. 302. 6. A COMMENT ON THE REVIEW OF “PRIMATES OF NORTHEAST INDIA” PUBLISHED IN JBNHS VOL. 97(3) With reference to the above-mentioned review, I would like to point out the following errors. The review of primates of northeast india, Srivastava (1999), by Gavand (2000) has failed to detect some serious errors. The main problem in this work lies in the maps and text. Zoogeographical complexities have made faux pas very difficult in Northeast India, e.g., the River Brahmaputra and many of its tributaries such as the Dibang, Manas and Sankosh are effective barriers in the dispersal of many mammals. The capped langur Trachypithecus pileatus does not occur between the Siang and Dibang rivers in Arunachal Pradesh, but the map on p. 1 63 shows as many as three sites in that region. 290 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES What was the basis and source of these? There is no indication as to whether it was the author’s own observation or other source. This area is a “no langur” zone and so far none have been sighted. If any sighting has been made, then it should be highlighted with specific data, as it would be a very important record. Even in China (Tibet), no langurs were recorded immediately to the east of Yarlung Zangbo (Siang or Brahmaputra) (Choudhury 1997, Qiu 1997). Phayre’s leaf monkey Trachypithecus phctyrefs northern limit of distribution in Assam is the Barak river, but the map on page 168 shows that it occurs beyond, even reaching the Meghalaya border! The author did not show the Barak river but the site shown was apparent as well beyond (the northernmost site shown on the map). The distribution of T. phayrei in Assam is already mapped (Choudhury 1988, 1994a, b) but the author did not review these records, although some are published in the well-known JBNHS. So far, there is no record of the rhesus macaque Macaca mulatto in the higher areas of western Arunachal Pradesh such as Tawang district and upper areas of Kameng. The published records from Tawang (Singh 1991) were based on misidentification of Assamese macaque M assamensis. Unlike other parts of Arunachal Pradesh where the primate is hunted for food, this species is common all over Tawang and Kameng, due to local tradition (the Monpas do not kill primates). But on the map on p. 1 43, rhesus macaque was shown to occur in Tawang and upper areas of West Kameng (2 dots each). The location of Tawang district is conspicuous on the map of Arunachal Pradesh as it forms the western extended arm penetrating inside Bhutan and Tibet. On p. 1 56, the distribution of golden langur Trachypithecus geei did not show Chakrashila Sanctuary, or the other nearby locations totalling more than 10. Not even a single dot put for more than 10 sites! Rather, Dhubri township with a human population of about 80,000 was shown as an isolated location. These locations are already mapped (Choudhury 1992). In the text, perhaps the most serious matter is the observation on the feeding profile and home range of Phayre’s leaf monkey in Murlen National Park, Mizoram (p. 167-8). Who has observed it in Murlen? My last visit to Murlen was in February 2001. So far, no observer has recorded it within the Park, although I was able to confirm its presence this time outside in the lower river valleys. The forest officials and staff who had accompanied all the survey trips (only a handful hence they easily remember) including that of the author’s in Murlen since 1994 (it is mandatory to take authorised forest staff) did not report sighting Phayre’s leaf monkey. Other observers on specific survey for this species could also not confirm it (Joydeep Bose, recipient of a National Geographic Society grant for the study of T. phayrei , pers. comm.). Anon (1994-99) which forms the basis for this book, as is evident from its Foreword and Preface, also does not mention sighting the Phayre’s leaf monkey in Murlen. The Park is a high elevation area with most parts above 1 ,000 m (up to > 1 ,600 m) but on p. 167, it was mentioned that the leaf monkey occurs up to 800 m only. Thus, the author himself has ruled out its presence in areas above 800 m, whereas the Park is higher. Then how could it occur in Murlen? It is clear from Anon. (1994-99) that no field survey was carried out in Manipur, but the maps show some localities. What is the source of these? No mention in the text, or even in the reference section, of any published work. Other noticeable errors, apart from spelling mistakes, were the conservation status of different species according to the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972. The stumptailed M. arctoides, Assamese M. assamensis and pigtailed macaques M. nemestrina are protected under Schedule II (Part I) and not Schedule I (pp. 135, 140, 150 respectively). The map on JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002 291 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES the forest type on p. 53 and the accompanying text on p. 51-54 is poor. Subtropical pine forest shown even near Guwahati city! In the Himalaya, the temperate forest areas have been shown as subtropical or vice versa. General comments I would like to make are that in a regional work, the distribution needs to be in greater detail, e.g., the stumptailed and pigtailed macaques are confined to the easternmost corner of Arunachal Pradesh. About 30 pages (p. 85-116) on food trees were wasted, as the plant part taken by the macaque is not mentioned. Huge introductory chapters (116 pages, more than 50% of the book) could have been restricted to 20-30 pages. Furthermore, Phayre’s leaf monkey’s status as per the Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972 has been Refer Anon. (1994-99): Indo-US Primate Project Annual Reports (unpubl.)Nos 1-5. Dept of Zoology, JNV University, Jodhpur. Choudhury, A.U. (1988): Phayre’s leaf monkey ( Trcichypithecus phciyrei ) in Cachar. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 85(3): 485-492. Choudhury, A.U. (1992): Golden langur - distribution confusion. Oryx 26: 1 72-173. Choudhury, A.U. (1994a): Phayre’s leaf monkey in Northeastern India. Tigerpaper XX I (3): 1-4. Choudhury, A.U. (1994b): Further observations on Phayre’s leaf monkey in Cachar, Assam. J. Bombay mentioned as Schedule I on p. 169, but as *?’ on p. 186 [Table 8.1] In the same Table, the status of primates mentioned on pp. 135, 140 and 150 are contradicted, that too wrongly (Part I not mentioned). On p. 137, para 2, it is stated that the Assamese macaque occurs up to 4,000 m elevation, but the very next paragraph says it is up to 3,800 m. Again on p. 147, para 2, it is stated that the pig-tailed macaque occurs up to 1 ,200 m altitude, but the next para says it is up to 1,700 m. Which one is correct? Oct. 25, 2001 ANWARUDDIN CHOUDHURY The Rhino Foundation for nature in NE India, C/o The Assam Co. Ltd., Bamunimaidam, Guwahati 781 021, Assam , India. E N C E S nat. Hist Soc. 91(2): 203-210. Choudhury, A.U. (1997): Mammals of Namcha Barwa, Tibet. Oryx 31(2): 91-92 Gavand, M. (2000): Review of 'Primates of Northeast India’ by A. Srivastava. JBNHS 97(3): 415. Qiu, M.J. (1997): Mammals of Namcha Barwa, Tibet. Oryx 31(2): 92. Singh, P. (1991): A preliminary faunal survey in Thingbu Circle, Towang district, Arunachal Pradesh. Arunachal Forest News 9(1): 13-22. Srivastava, A. (1999): Primates of Northeast India. Megadiversity Press, Bikaner. 7. “PRIMATES OF NORTHEAST INDIA” PUBLISHED IN JBNHS 97(3) — A COMMENT Thank you for the opportunity to comment on the note on my book “Primates of Northeast India ( 1 999). The critic has commented on three aspects of the review and the book: the literature search, field work conducted and distribution of primates. The sections Preface, Foreword and Acknowledgments clarify the source of data set, field work conducted, literature search, scope of the book, genesis, and the objectives of the book. Field Work: It is explicitly mentioned in the Acknowledgments and other places that the data set presented in this book is an outcome of my own field work covering 650,000 hectares of forests between 1994 and 1999, walking about 1,600 km on forests trails covering almost every state of Northeast India. I have also relied heavily on the observations of my colleagues and friends. As all this field work was carried out with many of my colleagues as part of a research team, I have taken extra care that no direct data are reported so that the academic rights of others are not compromised. This is normal academic ethics. However, more data are now analyzed and 292 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 99(2), AUG. 2002 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES published in journals of repute, giving everybody equal right of authorship. Additionally, the book aimed to provide firsthand information to common people and to an expert. If a reader is keen to obtain direct data, he is always welcome to read more scientific papers published elsewhere. Literature Search: Apart from my personal collection of over 5000 reprints and 250 books on primates, I have consulted the world’s best primate literature collection at Primate Information Center, Primate Center Library WRPRC at Wisconsin, Madison. The list of references with 195 citations clearly shows that the most authentic work is cited in the book. Therefore, it is not appropriate to say that I have not consulted relevant literature. Needless to say, one needs some criteria to choose from thousands of published and unpublished materials. The best a science student is taught to do in such circumstances is to select first the research findings published in referred journals with high citation index and / or impact index, next choose published work in peer reviewed journals, books and lastly published material in unreviewed journals, newspapers and unpublished reports. Therefore, students are always advised to publish their work in reviewed journals for the maximum exposure. Yet Another Data Point: It is not appropriate to question the dignity of a researcher who has a proven track record and I have the privilege of being trained by the best primatologists of the world, and have worked in the field and published results with them. 1 do not believe in Yet Another Data Point philosophy, rather I collect as much and as authentic detailed information as possible and test the hypothesis, and only then do I report my findings in reputed journals. This is the main reason why I have given only passing reference to my field observations as they are not published yet. Nevertheless, the quality of my research is clearly evident from the publications I have done with my research team. To make a comparative analysis please read Choudhury (1992) and Srivastava, et al. (2001a, b) on the distribution of golden langurs; Choudhury (1995-96) and Srivastava et al. (2001c) on Borajan reserve forest; and Choudhury ( 1 999) and Srivastava et al. (200 Id) on Primates of Gibbon Wildlife Sanctuary. Physical Barriers and Dispersal: In earlier publications, some natural historians mentioned this area between the Siang and the Dibang rivers as ‘no primate zone’. As more information is available now, it is referred as ‘no langur zone’ but before proposing such a theory, one needs to test this hypothesis, collect evidence and data to support it (which in this case is lacking). We have sighted capped langurs and rhesus macaques in this area we have surveyed between 1994 and 1999. If one has not observed the species in the area, it does not follow that the species doesn’t exist, e.g., even after six visits to Hollangapara RF, Choudhury (1989) was not able to sight a single individual of stump-tailed macaque, though he later recorded one group (Choudhury, 1999). Here one needs to understand the phenomenon of dispersal, speciation through isolation and more importantly, the zoological time scale and climatic conditions before proposing such a theory. Often, the dispersal is more closely related to climatic conditions than postulated physical barriers that are apparently more impressive and effective at present than in the past. Generally, the Pleistocene glacial interval with reduced temperature, reduced rainfall, and increased seasonality has played a significant role in the dispersal of animals in the Indo-Chinese Peninsula (Heaney 1991). Verstappen (1975) identified three factors responsible for Quaternary climatic conditions in Asia, especially during glacials: (1) the position of the Intertropical Convergence Zone, (2) the worldwide drop in air and marine temperatures which resulted in lowering of snowline and forest line and affected altitudinal zonation of vegetation in the area, and (3) the emergence of shelves during glacials due to JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002 293 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES lowering of sea level. Gross evidences derived from palynology, sedimentology and geomorphology suggests substantial cooler and drier climate over unglaciated continental areas at the end of the last glaciation about 1 8,000 years ago (CLIMAP 1976, Gates 1976). Two such periods of aridity may be the most plausible explanation for the apparent zoogeographical anomalies in Southeast Asia, including the disjunct distribution of primates (Brandon- Jones, 1 978). Perhaps lowering of sea level explains the distribution of long-tailed macaque to Nicobar Islands in India. On the other hand, we have a fine example of speciation through reproductive isolation by an effective biological barrier for distribution of primates in India, the closely related species Macaco radiata and M. assamensis are separated by a biological barrier, M. mulatto, (rivers have no role to play in this case). 1 do not find any faux pas in the distribution maps for capped langur (page 163), rhesus macaque (p. 143), Phayre’s leaf monkey (p. 168), and so on. All the sites mentioned in the maps are based on the surveys conducted by us between 1994 and 1999. A more detailed research paper highlighting specific locations of each population encountered is in preparation and will soon be available for comments (Srivastava, et al. In prep.). If the critic can record the presence of Phayre’s leaf monkey from Murlen National Park, why not others? The statement 1 have made on feeding and home range use is based on my observations (of course unpublished) of these monkeys inhabiting Murlen NP, Innerline Reserve Forest, Sipahijala WLS, and protected areas in northern Thailand. Incidentally, the altitude of Murlen National Park is between 400 m and 1897 m (Anon. 1996), and not above 1 ,000 m (up to > 1 ,600 m) as reported in the note. The types of forest map on page 53 has been adopted from the classic work of Champion and Seth (1968), which was further modified by the Forest Survey of India (1997) and I do not find any faux pas there either. The five volume compendium The Flora of Assam by Kanjilal, 1997 (list price Rs. 1200/-) is extraordinary but out of reach of the common man. The forest is green for a natural historian, not only field biologists, even plant taxonomists fail to identify plants on the spot without flowers and fruits and / or technical assistance. My attempt here was merely to introduce the concept of primate habitat and diet to the reader and foster greater interest in primate ecology. Most botanical descriptions are too technical for a layman and figures are often not available in Kanjilal (1997). Therefore, the section on plants is an important and useful component of my book. Similarly, the sections on the history, state profile and people of Northeast are important and meaningful. I quote Southwick (2000) ‘‘In the first two chapters, Dr. Srivastava wisely prepares us for understanding this diversity with profiles of topographic, climatic and economic conditions of each of the seven states of northeast India, aiong with discussions of their historical, sociological, and ethnographic backgrounds. This is a substantial, scholarly achievement and it appropriately sets the stage for better understanding some of the problems facing the remarkable biodiversity of this vital region ...” Needless to say, I am aware of the typographical and editorial shortcomings of this book of mine, but surely they are not faux pas. As an author I hold ethical, moral and professional responsibility to attend to all these shortcomings in the next edition. Despite al! the shortcomings I have received extraordinary remarks on the book by leading primatologists of the world. In my considered opinion, it is not a crime to make available the facts and figures of science to a layman. I hope this note will help in the development and growth of field biology in general and primatology in particular in India. October 25, 200 1 ARUN SRIVASTAVA #34 Raj mat a Ka Nohra, Bikaner 334 001, Rajasthan, India. 294 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES References Anon (1996): Welcome to Murlen National Park. Dept, of Environment and Forests, Govt, of Mizoram. Wildlife Series No. 23: 1-5. Brandon-Jones, D. ( 1 978): The evolution of recent Asian colobines. In: Recent Advances in Primatology, Vol. 3, Evolution (Eds: Chivers, D.J. and K.A. Joysey). Academic Press, London, pp. 323-325. Champion, H.G. & S.K. Seth (1968): A Revised Survey of the Forests Types of India. The Manager of Publication, New Delhi. Choudhury, A.U. (1989): Primates of Assam: their distribution, habitat and status. Ph.D. thesis, Gauhati University, Guwahati. (Unpublished). Choudhury, A.U. (1992): Golden langur — distribution confusion. Oryx 26: 172-173. Choudhury A.U. ( 1 995-96): Primates in Bherjan, Borajan and Podumoni Reserved Forests, Assam, India. Asian Primates 5 (3&4): 10-11. Choudhury, A.U. (1999): Primates in Gibbon Sanctuary, Assam, India. Asian Primates 7 (1&2): 4-6. CLIMAP Project Members (1976): The surface of ice- age earth. Science 191: 131-137. Forest Survey of India (1997): The State Forest report. Ministry of Environment and Forests, Govt, of India, Varun Offset Printers, Dehra Dun. Gates, W.F. ( 1 976): Modeling the ice-age climate. Science 191: 1138-1144. Heaney, L.R. (1991): A synopsis of climate and vegetational change in Southeast Asia. Climate Change 19: 53-61. Kanjilal U.N. (1997): Flora of Assam. Vol. I to V. Omsons Publications, New Delhi. Southwick, C.H. (2000): Primates of Northeast India. WWF India Network Newsletter 10(3): 7-8. Srivastava, A., M. Baruah & S.M. Mohnot (2001a): The population dynamics and conservation of golden langur. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 98(1): 12-17. Srivastava, A., J. Biswas, P. Bujarbarua & J. Das (2001b): Status and distribution of golden langurs ( Trachypithecus geei ) in Assam, India. American Journal of Primatology 55(1): 15-23. Srivastava, A., .1. Das, J. Biswas, P. Bujarbarua, P. Sarkar, I. Bernstein & S.M. Mohnot (2001c): Primate population decline in response to habitat loss: Borajan reserve forest of Assam, India. Primates 42(4): 40 1 - 406. Srivastava, A., D. Chetry, P. Bujarbarua, J. Das & P. Sarkar (200 Id): Status of primates in the Gibbon Wildlife Sanctuary, Assam, India. Biosphere Conservation, 4(2): In press. Srivastava, A., D. Chetry, P. Bujarbarua, J. Das, J. Biswas, P. Sarkar, R. Medhi, J. Bose, F. Begum, G. Ahmed & S.M. Mohnot (In prep.): Status and distribution of primates in Assam and focal areas for future conservation and management. Srivastava, A., P. Sarkar, J. Das, P. Bujarbarua, C. Chetry, J. Biswas, R. Medhi, J. Bose, F. Begum, G. Ahmed & S.M. Mohnot (In prep.): Primate populations in northeast India: the corridor between southeast and temperate Asia and the Indian subcontinent. Verstappen, ITT. (1975): On palaeo climates and land form development in Malaysia. In: Modern Quaternary research in Southeast Asia (Eds: Bartstra G.J. and W.A. Casparie). Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema. 8. STATUS OF SPOT-BILLED PELICAN PELECANUS PHILIPPENSIS, FAMILY PELEC AN ID AE, IN GUJARAT The spot-billed pelican Pelecanus philippensis is a monotypic species and is known to breed in Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Orissa and Andhra Pradesh from November to March-April. Ali and Ripley (1983) state that it is resident and locally migratory in both Pakistan and all over India. Ali (1954) has listed P. philippensis , but has not commented on it. On the other hand, he has written comments and confirmed sighting of the great white pelican Pelecanus onocrotalus. However, confirmed identification of the two subspecies of P. philippensis was not specified. P.p. philippensis is not listed by Ali (1945) and Palin and Lester (1904). Dharmakumarsinhji (1954) does not include the nominate species P philippensis , however, he has described both the Dalmatian P crispus , and the great white pelican P. onocrotalus, which are winter migrants to the Saurashtra peninsula. While scanning the literature, particularly on the Dalmatian pelican P. crispus , I realised that I had never seen P. philippensis in Gujarat, JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002 295 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES though P. crispus was seen regularly, in small numbers, in the coastal regions of Saurashtra and freshwater reservoirs, including Nalsarovar Bird Sanctuary and Pariej and Kanewal reservoirs of Kheda district, in central Gujarat. However, midwinter waterfowl census reports ( 1 987-1 996) and other recent checklists show the occurrence of both the Dalmatian and the spot-billed pelican in Gujarat. I believed that this could be an error, partly because the observer may not have been able to distinguish between two subspecies. I discussed this matter with a few senior birdwatchers, asking them if they had seen P. philippensis in any part of Gujarat State. 1 requested them to send their comments, which are quoted below. Shri Lavkumar Khacher: “1 do not have any preserved records of sightings of the two subspecies and I am sure one of the greatest problems is going to be this total lack of qualitative data. You are absolutely correct about inaccuracy of identification by a number of birdwatchers. My impression is that the northern wintering bird is the one we see most frequently. Being great fliers (sic), however, it certainly does not preclude the southern bird from spreading north, but caution is necessary since the juveniles of Dalmatian might be passed off as the dark southern birds.” Shri M.K. Himmatsinhji: “As far as the spot-billed pelican Pelecanus philippensis is concerned, I have not come across it in Kutch. On what authority Ali and Ripley ( 1 983) mention it as occurring in Pakistan is not clear to me. On the other hand, Roberts (1991) excludes it from the checklist of birds of Pakistan. It has been my experience over the years that one cannot lay down hard and fast rules about records or occurrence of birds in any given area or region. In this case, it can safely be said that this species has not been firmly recorded in Gujarat. “The Dalmatian pelican P. crispus is an irregular migrant visitor, which whenever present is always seen in very small numbers (2- 6 individuals) in this part of our country.” M.K. Shivbhadrasinhji: “I have not come across any spot-billed pelican P. philippensis in Saurashtra.” S.N. Varu: “I have not seen spot-billed pelican in Kutch though previously I was mistaken but afterward I confirmed that it was a Dalmatian pelican.” This matter was also discussed with Dr. Taej Mundkur (Wetland International, Malaysia) during February and November 1996. Till then, he had not seen P. philippensis in Gujarat. However, during his visit to Gujarat on August 14, 1999, he informed me of having seen a single bird amongst a few Dalmatian pelicans on Lakhota lake at Jamnagar during January 1999. This is the one reliable sighting from Gujarat. The spot-billed pelican is an uncommon winter visitor in Rajasthan also. Though the species figures in the checklist of the Keoladeo National Park (Vijayan 1991), its sightings were rare (L. Vijayan pers. comm.). In the last ten years, it has rarely turned up at Keoladeo National Park (Vibhu Prakash, Bholu Khan, pers. comm.). It has not been recorded at Kota in southeast Rajasthan during the last few years (Rakesh Vyas pers. comm., Vyas 1992). Since the species is so rare in Rajasthan, the possibility of its occurrence in Gujarat is doubtful. The monotypic P. philippensis is known to breed in Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh from November to March-April. Hence, the adult potential breeders are likely to move only to the breeding grounds rather than wander in the north-western states of India. Only immature birds are likely to wander away from the breeding ground during winter. This could be the major reason behind its rarity in Rajasthan and complete absence from Gujarat. Regular records of this species in the Asian Waterfowl Census and subsequent publications (Perennou et al. 1994. Khacher 1996) may be due to confusion in identification or listing. 296 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES According to Khacher (op. cit.), there is lack of quality data collection. Besides this, I feel that the confusion is mainly due to the common English name grey pelican used by Ali and Ripley (1983) for P. philippensis and by Dharmakumarsinhji (1954) for P. crispus. Thus, it can be concluded that the occurrence of this species is not established in Gujarat state. November 29, 1999 B. M. PARASHARYA AINP on Agricultural Ornithology, Gujarat Agricultural University, Anand 388 110, Gujarat, India. References Ali, S. (1945): The Birds of Kutch. Oxford University Press, Bombay. Ali, S. (1954): The Birds of Gujarat. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 52(2 & 3): 374-458. Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1983): Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan. Compact edition. Oxford University Press, New Delhi. Dharmakumarsinhji, R.S. (1954): Birds of Saurashtra, India. Times of India Press, Bombay. Khacher, Lavkumar (1996). The Birds of Gujarat: A Centenary Overview. J. Bombay nat Hist. Soc. 93(3): 331-373. Lopez, A. & T. Mundkur (1997): The Asian Waterfowl Census 1994-1996. Results of the Coordinated Waterbird Census and an Overview of the Status of Wetlands in Asia. Wetlands International, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Palin, H. & Lester, C.D. (1904): The Birds of Cutch. Times Press, Bombay. Perennou, C., T. Mundkur, D.A. Scott, A. Follestad & L. Kvenild ( 1 994): The Asian Waterfowl Census 1987- 91 : Distribution and Status of Asian Waterfowl. AWB Publication No. 86. IWRB Publication No. 24. AWB, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia and IWRB, Slimbridge, U.K. Roberts, T.J. (1991): The Birds of Pakistan, Oxford University Press, Karachi. Vijayan, V.S. (1991): Keoladeo National Park Ecology Study. Final Report 1980-1990. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay. Vyas, R. ( 1 992): Checklist of the birds of Kota district in southeast Rajasthan. Newsletter for Birdwatchers 32 (11 & 72): 8-10. 9. A LARGE CONGREGATION OF BLACK-SHOULDERED KITE ELANUS CAERULEUS AT RANTHAMBORE NATIONAL PARK Naoroji (1987) has reported a large communal gathering of over 1 5 black-shouldered kites from Ranthambore National Park, Rajasthan, India, on an afternoon in May 1984. A larger gathering of more than 50 kites was observed in the same Park, in the last week of May 1999, at about 1600 hrs near the Raj Bagh Lake (26° OF 49” N, 76° 28' 03” E). Although the black-shouldered kite is distributed throughout India, such a phenomenon has not been reported from within the country. In Africa, it is known to roost communally, sometimes in very large congregations (Brown et al. 1982). Even at Ranthambore, though they are known to roost communally, such a large number has not been recorded so early in the day before roosting time (Naoroji 1987). What is interesting is the striking similarity in both these observations that are 1 5 years apart and from the same area. During another research investigation, I had stayed for five continuous weeks, making trips (each of three hours duration) both in the morning and evening, everyday, but had not noticed such a gathering on any other occasion. The species is known for its nomadic movements throughout its distributional range (del Hoyo et al. 1 994) and in Africa is known to appear in areas with temporary rodent abundance and above average rainfall (Brown et al. 1982, Cramp and Simmons 1980). In India, especially at Ranthambore, it would be interesting to see if such gatherings occur every year and if local rainfall patterns or abundance of prey influences JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 99(2), AUG. 2002 297 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES it. Could such a gathering have significance in migration, seasonal or nomadic population movements? Acknowledgements I thank Dr. Asad R. Rahmani for his valuable suggestions and for the references. 1 Refer Brown, H Leslie, K. Emil Urban & Kenneth Newman (1982): The Birds of Africa. Vol. 1 . Academic Press. Pp. 302-304. Cramp, S. & K.E.L. Simmons (Eds) (1980): Handbook of the Birds of Europe, the Middle East and North Africa: Birds of the Western Palearctic. Vol. 2 Hawks to Bustards. Oxford University Press. thank Dr. M.B. Krishna for suggesting that I write this note and for his help with the drafts. January 8, 2000 V. SRIN1VAS ‘Padmashree ’ No. 1 70/B, Jayanagar 1st Block East, Bangalore 560 Oil, Karnataka, India. ENCF.S Pp. 23-27. del Hoyo, J., A. Elliott & J. Sargatal (1994): Handbook of the Birds of the World. Vol. 2, New World Vultures to Gunieafowl. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona. Pp. 115. Naoroji, Rishad (1987): Communal gathering of black- winged kites ( Elanus caeruleus vociferus). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 83 (supplement): 200-201 . 10. ATTEMPTED FEEDING BY A SH1KRA ACCIPITER BADIUS \ FAMILY ACCIPITRIDAEjON BUFFSTRIPED KEELBACK AMPHIESMA STOLATA, FAMILY COLUBRIDAE According to Ali and Ripley (1987), the food of the shikra Accipiter badius includes all live animals of manageable size, like mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians and various insects. Its reptilian food includes various kinds of lizards, e.g. Calotes versicolor, Mabuya car in at a, Hemidactylus sp., and Lygosoma sp. However, Naoroji (1985) recorded Calotes versicolor as its main food. On January 7, 1999 while walking on the roadside along Chander More , a wetland in Murshidabad district, West Bengal at around 1400 hrs, I saw a shikra Accipiter badius cross the road in front of me and fly overhead, carrying a rope-like object in its feet. As it settled on an eucalyptus tree, some 70 m away, I moved quickly near the tree and found it was holding a small snake, 30-40 cm in length. I identified the snake as a buffstriped keelback Amphiesma stofata, the commonest snake in this area. The shikra had, perhaps, captured it in the nearby marsh as it came from that direction when I first saw it. The snake was still alive, and in trying to free itself, had coiled around the leg of the shikra, which looked uncomfortable. A few minutes later it flew off with its prey and I could not see the fate of the snake. November 9, 1999 SAMIRAN JHA Green Peoples India, P rant a Pally, PO. and Dist. Malda 732 101, West Bengal, India. References Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1987): Compact Handbook of the Naoroji, R. (1985): Notes on some common breeding Birds of India and Pakistan. Oxlord University Raptors of the Rajpipla Forest. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Press, New Delhi. Soc. 82(2): 278-308. 298 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002 11. ATTEMPT BY THE CRESTED SERPENT-EAGLE SPILORNIS CHEELA TO SEIZE THE INDIAN COBRA NAJA NAJA On May 26, 1999, Mr. Neelirnkumar Khaire, Director, Katraj Snake Park, Pune informed me about an injured crested serpent- eagle Spilornis cheela. The eagle was found in the Katraj Ghat, about 10 km south of Pune. While patrolling the Ghat section, the traffic police officer Mr. B.S. Divekar was shocked to see a bird falling from the sky, right in front of his vehicle. The officer soon realised that it was some kind of ‘shikari pakshi’ i.e. a bird of prey. To his great surprise, the bird was entangled with a cobra ( Naja naja). He took a stick and tried to drive off the cobra by beating it on its tail. The cobra immediately raised its hood and launched false attacks. However, after some time, it slowly unwound itself and disappeared into a nearby nullah. Although the eagle was not very badly injured, it was soaked in the rain and unable to move. Mr. Divekar brought the eagle to the Katraj Snake Park, where there is a section for injured animals. While examining the eagle, we found that it had been superficially bitten under the left eye, clearly noticeable by the fang marks from which some blood had oozed out and clotted. Two things struck me. In spite of its swiftness and ability to hunt snakes and lizards, this particular eagle could not manage its quarry efficiently. The snake managed to coil around the bird’s wings in the air, making it lose control of its wings. The eagle was kept under careful observation in a cage. It was fed with small pieces of mutton, which it readily accepted. The need to give it snake antivenin was discussed. However, the shot was not given, as the eagle started showing signs of revival. To test the extent of the bird’s revival, the Park management gave it small animal prey like chicken and guinea pig. The eagle immediately launched attacks and seized the prey. After having confirmed its ability to fly and physical fitness, the eagle was set free on July 9, 1999, by the Park authorities. March 3, 2000 KIRAN PURANDARE 62/ A, ‘Pr askant ’ Erandawane Gaonthan , Off Karve Road, Pune 411 001, Maharashtra, India. 12. BREEDING BY THE INDIAN COURSER CURSOR1US COROMAN DELICUS IN WINTER IN RAIPUR, CHHATTISGARH, INDIA On December 15, 1999, while bird watching, we visited the open wasteland (locally known as bhatas) near village Mand (Kharora), about 38 km on the Raipur-Balodabazar State Highway, district Raipur, Chhattisgarh. Apart from yellow-wattled lapwings ( Vanellus malabaricus ), ashy-crowned sparrow-larks (Eremopterix grisea ) rufous-tailed finch-larks ( Ammomanes phoenicurus) and Eurasian skylarks ( Alauda arvensis), a flock of twenty Indian coursers ( Cursorius coromandelicus ) was also seen. At some distance from them, we sighted a solitary bird squatting on the open ground. The bird did not move till the vehicle had approached close, whereas the other birds had already moved to considerable distances. This behaviour aroused our curiosity and we approached closer. Thereafter, the bird moved away reluctantly, exposing two eggs on its open, scraped ground nest. The bird in the nest and the exposed eggs were photographed. The area around the nest was extensively examined, but no other nest could be located. Subsequently, the site was visited on January 12, 2000 when another hen brooding two eggs was seen about 40 m away from the JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002 299 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES first nest. A week later, i.e. on January 19, 2000, a second abandoned nest was found; no hen or chicks were seen; the eggshells lying nearby were collected. Another nest with a hen brooding a clutch of two eggs was located on January 19, 2000 about 25 m away. The breeding season of the species is March to August, (handbook of the birds of india and Pakistan; Ali, Salim and S. Dillon Ripley, 1987, Vol. 3, Pp. 182). In this case, the eggs were being hatched in December and January, suggesting that the species breeds in winter in this region. March 3 1 , 2000 A.M.K. BHAROS MOHIT SAHU B-101, Gayatri Nagar, P. O. Shankar Nagar, Raipur 492 007, Chhattisgarh, India. 13. SIGHTING OF A RUFOUS-NECKED STINT CALIDRIS RUFICOLLIS (PALLAS) IN WEST BENGAL, INDIA On September 17, 1999, while observing a mixed flock of over 1,000 waders on the tidal mudflats of the alluvial Divar island in the inland-estuary of the Mandovi, Tiswadi tal, North Goa district, Goa, c. 15 km up the mouth of the river, an odd wader caught our interest. For more than 15 minutes, we observed through 30 x 60 and 60 x 78 spotter-scopes, the mostly immobile bird and compared it with numerous curlew sandpipers Calidris ferruginea , little stints C. minuta , and broad-billed sandpipers Limicola falcinellus that were surrounding it. Plumage: Virtually identical to little stint but markings less contrasting; pale V-shaped mark on mantle less distinct; crown less grizzled; buff wash on sides of breast stronger. Size: Markedly longer than little stint; almost as large as broad-billed sandpiper, sometimes appearing as large as some of them. Distinctly stocky, plumper and heavier than the comparatively sleek little stint, like a half-grown red knot C. canutus. Our observations of the plumage conform with those of Hayman et al. (1988) and Grimmett et al. (1998) for the non-breeding plumage of the rufous-necked stint which, however, are not conclusively identifying. It was the measurements that made us sure of the identity of this enigmatic wader. Table 1 COMPARATIVE MEASUREMENTS OF SMALL WADERS Body length Average w/obill weight (Hayman et al. 1988) (Ali & Ripley) Little stint 102-122, ave. 112 mm 20.6 g Rufous-necked stint 1 12-142, ave. 127 mm 24.0 g Broad-billed sandpiper 128-148, ave. 138 mm 32.2 g The average weights given by Ali and Ripley (1983) might be misleading, since they were taken for each species in different seasons. However, Snow and Perrins (1998) state that the rufous- necked stint is, on an average, 30% heavier than the little stint. This, in connection with the rufous- necked stint’s slightly shorter tarsus, accounts for the remarkable stockiness of the bird we had observed. The rufous-necked stint, long considered conspecific with the little stint, is known to winter in SE Asia and Australasia, and in our region it is a scarce but regular winter visitor to the shores of Bangladesh and India’s east coast. Our sighting is the first record of this species on the west coast. November 9, 1 999 GORDON FROST Shanu Smruti, Kudach Wada, Arpora 403 5 18, Goa, India. HEINZ LAINER Praias de St. Antonio, Anjuna 403 5 09, Goa, India. 300 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES References Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1983): Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan. Compact Edition. Oxford University Press, New Delhi. Grimmett, R., C. Inskipp & T. Inskipp (1998): Birds of the Indian Subcontinent. Christopher Helm, A & C Black, London. Hayman, R, J. Marchant & T. Prater (1988): Shorebirds. An identification guide to the waders of the world. Christopher Helm, London. Snow, D.W. & C.M. Perrins (1998): The Birds of the Western Palearctic. Oxford University Press, Oxford, New York. 14. OCCURRENCE AND ASSOCIATION OF RED-NECKED PHALAROPE PHALAROPUS LOBATUS WITH OTHER SPECIES AT SAMBHAR, RAJASTHAN With its slim graceful body, slender neck, small head, needle-like bill and lobed toes, the red-necked phalarope Phalaropus lobatus is one of the most distinctive waders. It is an expert swimmer, readily distinguished from other waders by its ability to land on water. Adam ( 1 874) obtained specimens of this rare bird on September 22 and 25 at Sambhar. According to Ali and Ripley (1980), it has been “recorded from few inland localities on spring and / or autumn passage”. Roberts (1991) says they “take flight to the sea coast non-stop, but occasional birds can be encountered on inland lakes or freshwater ponds on passage” and describes the status as “common but only offshore”. The purpose of this note is to report recent sightings of the red-necked phalarope at Sambhar lake and describe its foraging method in association with other feeding birds on passage. Twenty-seven red-necked phalarope were recorded at Kochia ki Dhani, a satellite freshwater wetland of Sambhar Lake on September 9, 1998. Eleven of them were swimming with six little grebe Podiceps ruficollis and picking up insects from the surface of the water. The other birds were paddling and spinning to bring prey to the surface. In the afternoon of February 5, 1 999, Denis Parkes, a British bird watcher, and I were watching waders at Kochia ki Dhani, Sambhar., Scanning the birds with my binoculars, I picked out a more lightly built bird and said that I had the red-necked phalarope. We counted 17 red- necked phalaropes on this freshwater pond. All of them were in ‘off’ plumage. They were staying in two to three groups around shovellers Anas clypeata. They were spinning around picking off flies disturbed by the ducks as they swam. As is customary with the genus when on inland waters, the group was not wary of us. On September 5, 1999, Harsh Vardhan and I recorded four red-necked phalarope at the same site with seven or eight avocets Recurvirostra avosetta, presumably taking advantage of the prey or edible particles brought to the surface, or into view, by foraging avocets in a shallow part of the lake. All the phalaropes were actively following the avocets. The explanation for this behaviour is that the red-necked phalarope “associate with the other feeding birds probably to benefit from the higher prey availability brought about by disturbance” (del Hoyo et al. 1996). According to Cramp and Simmons (1983), the red-necked phalarope feed in this manner “presumably to take advantage of prey brought to surface or into view”. Two comprehensive books on the birds of the Subcontinent (Ali and Ripley 1980, and Roberts 1991) describe its feeding methods, but do not record its feeding association with other birds. This note provides additional information on the feeding behaviour of the species in the Indian Subcontinent. December 16, 1999 HARKIRAT S. SANGHA B-27, Gautam Marg, Hanuman Nagar, Jaipur 302 021, Rajasthan, India. JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002 301 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES References Adam, R.M. (1874): Additional notes on the birds of the Sambhar Lake and its vicinity. Stray Feathers 2: 337-341. Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1980): Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan, Vol. 2, 2nd edn. Oxford University Press, New Delhi. Pp 323-325. Cramp, S. & K.L. Simmons (1983): The Birds of the Western Palaearctic, Vol. Ill Waders to Gulls. Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp. 629-639. del Hoyo, J., A. Elliot & J. Sargatal (Eds.) (1996): Handbook of the Birds of the World, Vol. 3. Hoatzin to Auks. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona. Pp. 532. Roberts, T.J. (1991): The Birds of Pakistan, Vol. 1. Oxford University Press, Karachi. Pp. 362-363. 15. POMPADOUR GREEN PIGEON TRERON POMPADORA AFFINIS AND LARGE HAWK-CUCKOO HIEROCOCCYX SPARVERJOIDES ON THE PALKONDA HILLS, PENINSULAR INDIA We visited Talakona Reserve Forest (13° 49' N, 79° 13' E) along with- members of the Bird Ringing Training Programme, organized by the Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS), from August 27-29, 1999, led by the second author. We camped at the Andhra Pradesh Forest Department’s Guest House Complex at the Siddeswaraswamy Temple. Talakona is c. 70 km northwest of Tirupati town in Chittoor district, Andhra Pradesh, and situated past Bhakarapeta near Nerabylu village in the foothills of the Palkondas, in what are collectively known as the Eastern Ghats. The hills that lie between Nerabylu and Mogilipenta, which is on the northeastern side, have several peaks higher than 1 ,000 m in this part of the Palkonda Range. Talakona is in the midst of a sacred grove, some 5 sq. km in area, with Semi-Evergreen jungle, including several endemic tree species (Anon. 1996: 14, 20, but specified location of Talakona on page 20 is incorrect). We bird-watched along a narrow 3 km stretch of riparian forest on either side of a perennial stream, Bugga Vagu. This is a frequently used pilgrim route that proceeds eastward from the temple and leads to the Talakona, or Papanasanam waterfall. One walks almost parallel to the stream most of the way, on a path at least 20-25 m above the water level, and affords excellent views into the canopy of the trees that rise from the valley below. Large Hawk-Cuckoo Hierococcyx sparverioides Vigors While we were returning from the waterfall on the morning of August 28, 1999, a hawk-like bird flew on to a bare branch of a tall tree (c. 30 m), at eye level. In flight, we suspected it was a brainfever bird Hierococcyx varius Vahl. But through the binoculars it turned out to be a large hawk-cuckoo Hierococcyx sparverioides Vigors! It looked slightly bigger than H. varius , and a yellow circle was clearly visible around its orangish eye. It had very prominent dark grey horizontal bars on its white belly and its tail was distinctly banded dirty brown and dark grey. This will be the second published record of H. sparverioides from what are known as the Eastern Ghats in Andhra Pradesh State. The first was by Ripley et al. (1988: 553), who recorded two immature females collected by them at Jyothimamidi “in disturbed forest” on the “Vizag Ghats” (that lie in the Northern Circars section of Andhra Pradesh, north of the Godavari river) on February 23 and 25, 1985 (see also Taher and Pittie, 1989: 14). However, ifthe biogeographical sub-areas of Ghorpade {in litt. 22-ix-1999 and map, 1 999: 4) are scientifically more correct, the ‘true’ Eastern Ghats occur only south of the Godavari and east of the Western Ghats: the “Vizag Hills” and others north of the Godavari being ‘incompatible’ with them, and belonging to what Ghorpade terms the Central Highlands 302 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES sub-area, which later reveal a distinct Himalayan influence and domination of sal (Shorea robusta) jungle that is absent south of the Godavari (Legris and Meher-Homji 1977). This means that our sighting is actually the first ever record of the large hawk-cuckoo from the true Eastern Ghats ecosystem. The handbook (Ali and Ripley 1987) mentions wintering and passage records of H. sparverioides from Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Kerala, indicating that this Himalayan-breeding cuckoo uses an easterly route to its wintering haunts on the Wynaad, Nilgiris, Palnis, and other highlands south to the erstwhile Travancore on the Western Ghats (Abdulali 1949: 1985: 210). The present record from the Palkonda Hills is the second from Andhra Pradesh, and confirms this easterly migratory route of the large hawk-cuckoo. Pompadour Green-Pigeon Treron pompadora affinis (Jerdon) Also on August 28, about half way to the temple from the waterfall, we were walking under an unidentified Ficus tree in fruit, when B. Raha, one of the participants, looked up and said “Green-pigeon!” Some 3-4 birds were seen moving in the canopy directly overhead, giving us a brief glimpse of themselves between the foliage. Just before all of them flew away, we got a better view of one green-pigeon and noticed that it had a maroon back. We were then sure it was a Pompadour green-pigeon Treron pompadora affinis (Jerdon), but we needed at least one more sighting to confirm its identity positively. So we returned that very evening at 1700 hrs, but could see no green-pigeons on the same tree. After some time, we started back and then, near the temple, about 7-8 green-pigeons flew over us and settled in a tree on the edge of the road, close at hand. One landed on a bare branch, clearly visible to all of us. Thus, we identified them as a flock of Pompadour green- pigeons! Ali and Ripley (1987) reported the distribution of this species and its habitat as “Western and southwestern India - the Western Ghats complex (including the Nilgiris, Palnis, and associated hill ranges) - from about 20° N southward through western Mysore (Malnaad) and Kerala. Affects forest and well-wooded country in evergreen and wet deciduous biotope; lowlands and up to c. 1200 m. altitude.” Jerdon (1864) claimed to have “killed it in Central India, and in the Eastern Ghats” but gave no details of location or date! Sugathan (1983) reported that “One specimen of T. pompadora was ringed in 1969 at the BNHS ringing camp. Subsequently, two pompadora ...were ringed in April/ December 1970,” in Point Calimere Sanctuary, Thanjavur district, Tamil Nadu (Krishna Raju and Shekar 1971). It is significant that Point Calimere is just 48 km away from Sri Lanka, separated by the Palk Strait, where T.p. pompadora (Gmelin) is “Resident subject to local movements” (Ripley 1982). Unfortunately, the race of this green-pigeon was not noted in both these instances {teste Balachandran). Abdulali (1985), however, questioned several identifica- tions of Sugathan (1983), but Hussain (1985), who was the project in-charge at Point Calimere, attempted to justify most of these ‘bird-in-the- hand’ determinations. Surprisingly, Hussain (1985) refers to Sugathan’s 1 T. pompadora ’ as “ pompadora affinis ”, stating that “its occurrence in Point Calimere is noteworthy.” The second author has regular sight records of pompadour pigeons during winter (October to February) from Point Calimere between 1981-1987. He also has sight records of the green-pigeon [= pompadour green-pigeon] from Tirumala...at Papanasanam (regularly sighted in flocks of 20-40) during 1989. Two of our bird watcher colleagues, who have visited this area, were contacted for information on this species/subspecies. Krys Kazmierczak (in litt. 20-ix-1999) quoted from his Talakona diary of 10-ii-1993, “ Treron pompadora 10.” Bharat Bhushan (in litt. 20-ix- 1999) also recorded the ‘Pompadour pigeon’ in the Eastern Ghats. He recalls seeing it “at JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002 303 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES different occasions ... near Mamandur (13° 42' N, 79° 27' E, Andhra Prades, [A.P.]), and also in a permanent patch of the peninsular endemic red sanders tree ( Pterocarpus santalinus) near Renigunta (13° 35' N, 79° 30' E, A.P). Further to these records, the second author has a sight record from Auroville (Pondicherry), where he saw a bird on a banyan tree in July 1996. It was the same race that breeds in the Western Ghats, (Balachandran and Alagarrajan 1997). Priya Davidar of Pondicherry University (in litt. 14-x- 1 999), informed that she has “not seen the grey- fronted green pigeon here (in Pondicherry) nor have any of my students. However, there is no reason why it cannot be a straggler here if recorded in other areas along the east.” This note is, therefore, a confirmation of Jerdon’s purported first record of “affmis” from the Eastern Ghats, based upon positive identifications from Chittoor district and Pondicherry in Tamil Nadu State. The presence of Treron pompadora in Point Calimere is recorded, but details about race are lacking, preventing us from ascertaining whether the birds are affinis, or the nominate pompadora that is believed to be endemic to Sri Lanka. Further observations will clarify this matter in the Point Calimere region. The presence of this predominantly Western Ghats species or subspecies (known from 20° N near Mumbai to the Ashambu Hills in south Kerala and Tamil Nadu), on the Eastern Ghats, is significant, as it reinforces the “vicariance” model propounded by Ripley et al. (1988) — that these present-day peninsular rain forest ‘relicts’ are those now stranded in surviving, humid, forested refuges, associated with the rain-capturing scarps, on the eastern hill ranges (see also Daniel et al. 1986, for an endemic gecko of peninsular India, also rediscovered on the hills near the Tirumala temple). Acknowledgements We would like to thank Kumar Ghorpade for reviewing the manuscript and for suggestions for improving this paper, and also Krys Kazmierczak, Bharat Bhushan and Priya Davidar for responding promptly with their supporting information. December 13, 1999 AASHEESH PITTIE 8-2-545 Road No 7, Banjara Hills, Hyderabad 500 034, Andhra Pradesh, India: S. BALACHANDRAN Bombay Natural History Society, Hornbill House, S.B. Singh Road, Mumbai 400 023, Maharashtra, India. References Abdulali, H. (1949): Some peculiarities of avifaunal distribution in peninsular India. Proc. natl. Inst. Sci. India. 15(8): 387-393, 5 maps. Abdulali, H. (1985): Comments on “Some interesting aspects of the avifauna of the Point Calimere Sanctuary, Thanjavur Dist., Tamil Nadu by R. Sugathan (JBNHS 79, pp. 567-75, 1 983)”. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 82(1): 209-210. Ali, Salim & S.D. Ripley (1987): Compact Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan. 2nd Edn. Oxford University Press, Delhi. Anon. (1996): Sacred and Protected Groves of Andhra Pradesh. World Wide Fund for Nature-India Andhra Pradesh State Office. 96 pp, 3 Annex., 40 col. photographs. Balachandran, S. & S. Alagarrajan (1997): Birds of Auroville — Final Report, Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay. Daniel, J.C., B. Bhushan & A.G. Sekar (1986): Rediscovery of the Golden Gecko Calodactylodes aureus (Beddome) in the Eastern Ghats of Andhra Pradesh. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 83(1): 15-16, I col. pi. Ghorpade, K. (1999): Letter from an insect-hunting ornithologist-21 . Pitta 93: 3-4. Hussain, S.A. (1985): Comments on Mr. Abdulali’s note on Dr. Sugathan’s paper on Avifauna of Point Calimere. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 82(1): 210-212. Jerdon, T.C. (1864): The Birds of India: Being a Natural History of all the Birds known to inhabit Continental 304 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES India; with descriptions of the Species, Genera, Families, Tribes, and Orders, and a brief notice of such Families as are not found in India. Making it a Manual of Ornithology Specially adapted for India. Published by the author. 2 (2): 450-451. Krishna Raju, K.S.R. & P.B. Shekar (1971): Some interesting bird records from Point Calimere. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 68(2): 457-459. Legris, P. & V.M. Meher-Homji (1977): Phytogeographic outlines of the hill range of peninsular India. Tropical Ecology 18(1): 10-24. Ripley, S.D. (1982): A Synopsis of the Birds of India and Pakistan together with those of Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka. 2nd Edn. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay. Pp. xxvi+653. 1 map. Ripley, S.D., B.M. Beehler& K.S.R. Krishna Raju (1988): Birds of the Visakhapatnam Ghats, Andhra Pradesh. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 84(3): 540-559 & 85(1): 90-107. Sugathan, R. (1983): Some interesting aspects of the avifauna of the Point Calimere Sanctuary, Thanjavur District, Tamil Nadu. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 79(3): 567-575. Taher, S.A. & A. Pittie (1989): A Checklist of Birds of Andhra Pradesh. Published by the authors, Hyderabad, ix+39 pp. 16. EURASIAN EAGLE-OWL BUBO BUBO TJBETANUS BIANCHI AT 2,100 M IN NORTH SIKKIM On March 3, 1 995 while on a visit to North Sikkim, we met an old hunter who had a big owl skin. On inquiry, he said that he had found the bird electrocuted by a high-tension wire at Khedum ( c . 2,100 m) in Lachung Valley about two and a half months earlier, i.e. around mid- December, 1994. It had the following measurements: Wing length : 480 mm Bill (From feathers) : 232 mm (From base of skull) : 48 mm Tarsus length : 72 mm Tail length : 300 mm Length of unstretched skin laid flat : 68 mm Its overall colour is pale buff and black, with dark heavy streaks on the breast and finely vermiculated streaks on the abdomen. The toes are completely feathered, with feathers overhanging and concealing the base of the dark, slaty claws. Local people from Gangtok identified it as ‘Pwongma’ (Lepcha) and ‘Koiralo’ (Nepali) and as the owl that “eats cats”, the last possibly being the tawny fish-owl Ketupa flavipes. The hunter reported that its mate was still in the area, but so far we have neither seen nor heard of more of these birds. Of the four subspecies of Bubo bubo (Linn.) in the Indian subcontinent, Bubo bubo bengalensis is the darkest and most richly coloured, both B.b. turcomanus and B.b. hemachalana are paler, while B.b. tibetanus is browner. According to the handbook of the birds of india and Pakistan (1983) by Ali and Ripley, B.b. bengalensis is resident throughout the Subcontinent from c. 1,500 m (and rarely c. 2,400 m) in the western Himalayas up to west- central Nepal “...possibly further east, but not yet recorded from Sikkim, Bhutan or NEFA...” Both B.b. turcomanus and B.b. hemachalana are recorded from the western Himalayas (Ladakh, Himachal Pradesh) and extralimitally from northern Pakistan, northern Baluchistan, and western Tibet right up to Kazakhstan. According to Vaurie (1965: 587) B.b. tibetanus has “...Range within our limits hypothetical...” though it “...probably also inhabits the eastern Himalayas at high altitudes...” Thus, it may occur in northern Sikkim and perhaps also North Bhutan and NEFA...” Considering the length, measurements, colour and locality, the specimen appears to be the Eurasian eagle-owl Bubo bubo tibetanus JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002 305 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Bianchi, which has an extralimital distribution in centra! and eastern Tibet (Lhasa, Gyantse, Khamba Dzong), areas that adjoin Sikkim. Salim Ali does not mention this owl in birds of sikkim (1962). This specimen, now deposited in the BNHS collection, confirms the hypothetical occurrence of the species in our range from North Sikkim. It may be worthwhile to emphasize that Bubo bubo bengalensis , which is much smaller and darker, is also not yet recorded from Sikkim. I thank the Sikkim Forest Department for enabling me to obtain this record. Feb. 23, 2000 USHA GANGULI-LACHUNGPA Department of Forests Environment & Wildlife \ Government of Sikkim, Deorali, Gangtok 737 102, India. 17. ON THE STATUS OF HYPOCOLIUS AMPELINUS BONAPARTE IN THE INDIAN SUBCONTINENT The hypocolius Hypocolius ampelinus Bonaparte (Family Bombycillidae) occurs in Afghanistan, S. Iran, Arabia and N. Africa where, in some areas, it is common and widespread. The handbook of the birds of india and Pakistan (Ali and Ripley 1972) describes the species as a rare vagrant, with individual examples seen and collected at long intervals in the Indian subcontinent. This opinion was supported by the fact that perhaps the first specimen was collected by Blanford on March 6, 1875 in the Larkana district, Pakistan followed by a record of Duke on April 20, 1877 in Kalat, Baluchistan (Pakistan). The handbook also mentions Sind (Karachi). It seems there were no further sightings of the hypocolius till Dr. Salim Ali saw and procured a specimen from Kihim on November 14, 1930 (Ali 1931). Apart from this, there was also said to be a report of its occurrence in Madhya Pradesh. It was nearly thirty years later that a female and a male were collected in mist nets consecutively on March 22 and 23, 1960 at Kuar Bet on the southern edge of the Great Rann of Kutch.(Shekar 1960). Apart from this. Dr. TJ. Roberts quotes Gen. Christon (pers. comm.) having come across a pair at Dalbadin in the Chagai (Pakistan) in 1942. At the best of times, birds are unpredictable creatures changing their pattern of movement and distribution over a period of time. This fact is proved by the recent records of occurrence of Hypocolius ampelinus on both sides of the border between India and Pakistan. Roberts ( 1 992) refers to R. Passburg and himself having observed small parties of this species in the Hab valley (west of Karachi) between February 3 and March 6, 1984. This included a flock of 16 birds on February 17, 1984. Then Asad Ali and R. Passburg saw some numbers in 1986 and 1989 in the same location. But the most significant observation was that of Roberts himself, of 25 to 30 individuals at Zangi Nawar lake in the Chagai desert (Baluchistan) ori May 1, 1985; they were going to roost in pairs, behaving excitedly and calling continuously. S.N. Varu (SNV) accompanied by members of the local nature club was the first person to record the recent occurrence of the hypocolius in Kutch, a male in the vicinity of Chhari Dhandh on January 23, 1990 and one female the same day drinking water at the small village tank of Fulay. During the Bird Migration Study Project undertaken by the Bombay Natural History Society from January 1 990 for two years, S. Asad Akhtar and J.K. Tiwari recorded the hypocolius and also captured and ringed a few individuals (details given in the Project Report). From 1992 to 1994, J.K. Tiwari made a more detailed study of the hypocolius at Fulay village under the BNHS Grasslands Ecology Project. The details of occurrences are given in Table 1. 306 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Table 1 RECORDS OF HYPOCOLJUSAMPELJNUS IN KUTCH FROM 1990-94 Location Date No. seen Observed by Chhari Dhandh 23T1990 1 SNV Fulay village 23. i. 1990 1 SNV Fulay scrub 24.ii.1991 1 JKT Fulay scrub 25.ii.1991 1 JKT Fulay scrub 05.iii.1991 6 JKT Fulay scrub 24.iii.1991 2 JKT Fulay scrub 03. i. 1992 1 JKT Fulay scrub 13. ii. 1993 3 JKT Fulay scrub 06.iii. 1 993 (morning) 30 JKT Fulay scrub 06.iii. 1 993 (evening) 44 JKT Fulay scrub 02. iv. 1993 4 Muhammad Fulay scrub 09. xi. 1993 12 (BNHS local assistant) JKT Fulay scrub 1 2.xii. 1 993 45 JKT & SNV Fulay scrub 1 3.xii. 1 993 50 JKT Fulay scrub 20.xii 1993 150 JKT Fulay scrub 26.xii.1993 4 JKT & MKH Fulay scrub 27. i. 1994 2 JKT Laija creek (Mandvi) 06. ii. 1994 1 JKT Fulay scrub 1 0.ii. 1 994 1 JKT Fulay scrub 19.3.1994 6 JKT Fulay scrub 22.3.1994 16 JKT Fulay scrub 07. iv. 1994 1 JKT The main sightings were made in the area adjacent to Fulay village, having sandy soil with thorny vegetation and ample food supply in the form of berries of Salvadora persica. This scrub jungle is situated between Fulay and Chhari villages. It has a dry water course, which runs from Chhari and passes through a greater part of this biotope. The predominant species of vegetation in this area are Acacia nilotica and Salvadora persica. Hypocolius ampelirms roost in Acacia and feed mainly on the ripe berries of Salvadora. After their morning activities, these birds, as observed by JKT, would suddenly fly up and disappear, presumably to a source of water. This species has been seen more recently on various occasions as indicated in Table 2. Table 2 RECENT RECORDS OF HYPOCOLJUSAMPELJNUS IN KUTCH Location Date No. seen Observed by Lakhpat Nr. Sindhodi 17. i. 1997 1 JKT (Abdasa) Pingleshwar (coastal dunes, 1998 1 Kavi Tej Abdasa) 02 . i i i . 1 999 1 Kavi Tej & A. Pomal Fulay scrub 29.iii.1999 11 JKT & SNV From the regular sightings and increasing numbers of birds seen fairly regularly for a period of four years, coupled with the recent sightings, though sporadic, it could now safely be inferred that this species has extended its range of distribution and that it is more or less a regular visitor to Kutch. Fresh information from observers in Pakistan about occurrences of Hypocolius ampelinus in that country could certainly help us on this side of the border to arrive at more definite conclusions. The semi-desert type scrub jungle near Fulay, in which the maximum numbers of hypocolius were observed, is in great danger of being cleared for agriculture and if steps are not soon taken to save this biotope, it will be lost for ever. This would also result in the destruction of one more habitat of the pied .tit, Parus nuchalis, in Kutch, which has already disappeared from some of its former haunts. November 30, 1 999 M.K. HIMMATSINHJI Jubilee Ground, Bhuj, Kutch, Gujarat, India. J.K. TIWARJ Sanghipuram, Moti Ber Abdasa, Kutch 370 655, Gujarat, India. S.N. VARU Junavas, Temple Street, Madhapur, Bhuj, Kutch 370 020, Gujarat, India. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002 307 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES References Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1972): Handbook of the Birds of Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 34: 1061. India and Pakistan, Vol. 5, Oxford University Press, Roberts, T.J. (1992): The Birds of Pakistan. Vol. 2 Bombay. Passeriformes. Oxford University Press, Karachi, Ali, S. (1931): The occurrence of the grey hypocolius Shekar, P.B. (1960): Further Additions to the Birds of ( Hypocolius ampelinus ) in North Konkan. J. Kutch. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 57: 224-225. 18. COMMENSAL FORAGING RELATIONSHIPS OF THE WHITE-BROWED FANTAIL* RHIPIDURA AUREOLA IN MYANMAR Flocking behaviour of birds in the non- breeding season is widely reported from the tropics. A number of reasons have been proposed for this behaviour. Several authors have observed that birds foraging in flocks benefit from the availability of arthropods flushed by flock mates (Belt 1874, Biddulph 1954, Moynihan 1962, Croxall 1976, MacDonald and Henderson 1977). However, other authors have found little evidence that the so-called “beater effect” (Powell 1985) is an important factor in promoting flocking behaviour (Willis 1972, Powell 1977, Greig- Smith 1978, King and Rappole 2001a). Fantails are small, fly-catching passerines of the Family Pachycephalidae. Though some species of fantail do not appear to participate in mixed-species flocks, e.g. the Willy wagtail ( Rhipidura leucophrys ) (Cameron 1985) and the yellow-bellied fantail ( R. hypoxantha) (Stevens 1904), other species of the group, such as the white-browed fantail ( R . aureola) regularly participate in mixed-species foraging flocks during the non-breeding season. Cameron ( 1 985) reported that grey fantails (R. fuliginosa) and rufous fantails (R. rufifrons) participating in mixed-species foraging flocks appear to forage on insects flushed by other flock members. We studied the behaviour and movements of the white-browed fantail in mixed-species flocks in semi-deciduous forest in north central Myanmar, in an attempt to determine the basis for their participation in such groups. This work is part of a long-term study of the birds of the north-central dry zone of Myanmar initiated in 1994, which is continuing. However, most of these observations were collected from January 16-29, 1999 at Chatthin Wildlife Sanctuary (23° 43' N, 95° 31' E), located roughly 160 km north-northwest of Mandalay in Myanmar’s Central Dry Zone. This sanctuary was established in 1941; it covers 268.2 sq. km (Salter and Sayer 1983) in which elevations range from 250-500 m. The climate is characterized by a rainy season (June-October), a cool dry season (November-February), and a hot dry season (March-May). The principal forest habitat at the sanctuary is Indaing, a Dry Deciduous Forest comprised of over 1 00 tree species, but dominated by Dipterocarpus tuberculifer. Indaing has a relatively open understorey of grasses and low shrubs maintained by regular, anthropogenic spring burning in March and April. Dominant trees in the forest lose their leaves in March at the height of the dry season, and leaf out again in June after monsoon arrives, at which time a lush, herbaceous understorey develops (Salter and Sayer 1983, McShea et al. 1999, Nay Myo Shwe et al. 1999). Bird flocks were located by walking slowly (c. 1.5 km/hr) through the forest, watching for movement and listening for vocalization of common flock associates. Once a flock was located, it was followed as long as possible. Observations were conducted with the aid of 8 x 42 binoculars. Descriptions of the foraging behaviour and movements of flock members were written down or dictated into a hand-held tape recorder for later transcription. *The white-browed fantail-flycatcher Rhipidura aureola is considered a member of Subfamily Rhipidurinae, see Buceros Vol 6(1), 2001. Published by: Bombay Natural History Society. 308 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES During 253 minutes of flock observation, we observed white-browed fantail foraging commensally with other species in nine instances. In six instances, fantails were observed foraging with flocks of sylviid warblers. In three other instances, fantails were observed foraging with chestnut-bellied nuthatches ( Sitta castanea) (Table 1). The general pattern fantails foraging with flocks of sylviid warblers was as follows. The warbler flocks consisted of 3-15 individuals of several species, including plain prinia ( Prinia inornata), Beavan's prinia {Prinia rufescens), Radde’s warbler {Phylloscopus schwarzi ), and common tailorbird {Orthotomus sutorius) (King and Rappole 2001a). They generally occur in open Indaing with widely spaced trees and a dense understorey, mainly of grasses and shrubs, c. 1 metre in height. Flock members forage mainly in the understorey, and in relatively close proximity to one another (flock diameter <25 m). Fantails foraging in association with these flocks typically perch at the front margin of the advancing flock on an exposed branch or side of a tree trunk 1 -2 m above the ground. They hawk flying insect prey, which is apparently flushed by the movements of the flock. As the flock moves through the understorey, fantails shift perches in an apparent effort to keep to a perch that enables them to monitor their flock mates. Warbler flocks, with a fantail in attendance, were followed over distances of up to 300 m. Only once did we see two fantails following the same warbler flock without agonistic interaction. On a separate occasion, a fantail attending a warbler flock was chased back in the direction from which the flock had come by a second fantail, which then assumed sole membership in the flock. Fantails were also observed attending mixed-species flocks of common woodshrike, small minivet (P ericrocotus cinnamomeus ), with up to 20 other species, including the chestnut- bellied nuthatch (King and Rappole 2001a). In following these flocks, we observed three occasions when fantails were apparently following the foraging activities of chestnut- bellied nuthatches, and attempting to capture flying insect prey flushed by the nuthatches. In one instance, a fantail was seen with a pair of nuthatches, which were gleaning bark in the canopy. The fantail maintained a position below the pair, making periodic hawking flights into the air below the nuthatches, evidently after invertebrates were dislodged by the nuthatches. The fantail followed the nuthatches as they changed perches seven times in 26 minutes over a distance of 100 m. In another instance, a fantail was seen following a nuthatch through three successive perch changes over a distance of 30 m. As the nuthatch foraged, gleaning invertebrates from tree bark, the fantail kept 1-2 m away from the nuthatch, facing it and evidently observing its activities. Only once did we observe two fantails following the same woodshrike flock without agonistic interaction. However, only one of them was foraging commensally with a nuthatch during that observation. The members of the Subfamily Rhipidurinae, which include the white-browed fantail, are noted for their distinctive style of foraging, in which the conspicuous white patches in the rectrices are exposed abruptly as the bird fans its tail, either from a perch or in flight, thereby flushing insects which are then captured in flight (Goodwin 1967, Cameron 1985, Recher and Holmes 1985). In Myanmar, we regularly observed fantails perching on tree trunks flashing their outer rectrices and chasing insects flushed from the bark, or making zigzag diving flights over the grass, similar to the behaviours thought by Goodwin (1967) to be directed at flushing insect prey. Thus, the switch from preying on arthropods flushed by the fantail itself to preying on arthropods flushed by other species is a natural one, especially in the case of species that flush or dislodge prey from substrates regularly used by foraging fantails (e.g. grass or bark). Cameron (1985) described grey and rufous fantails JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002 309 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES on C 3 u, Q W £ O & CQ W oo b H rn £ u, O C/5 2 Oh 2 W O 2 S % P o Uh > LU Oh _) m S? & h CQ o ^ H X £ fc 9 C 2 LU W <75 00 < 00 w -O T3 O 3 75 r= c ° eo ax ■ C/l O C 4> ^ i T3 0> X3 Wi o o e "S c T3 'E JO •c 0h V) E ‘E (X O 3 c. Cl t/i 2 •c 0- ,c/) 1 s .£ § 'E "c CO O g d> OQ "E o. £ £ o £ O. m jz o CO JZ +H 3 2 •o <0 13 3 C Oh ir, A £ E © o JZ o CO s 3 2 x» D JZ *L 3 3 w5 w JZ O T3 U 1 8 "5 c oo — (N (N - -I CN O M — o © r- VO ■^cf r^i •-H o © i— « — • *“■ 1 o © (N o i — ! *— » *—> •— » ■— . >— ! CO r-- © m m ^r r- r- r- oo Cl (N (N C/D 4—> >, 3 O 13 X! X) JJ C/5 J-H 4— » o3 3 £ X X o 2 3 s— i O to +-> o X • i-H O X c/5 'd Oh Oh 3 3 H — ‘ 3 O X 3 c/i 3 CD X X O C/5 3 <3 c/5 3 O c/5 3 D C/5 2 on C/5 • ' — 1 ^ i X o o 3 3 J5 £ *-< o o X • i-H 4— > D .u 3 X H — > CD 3 X D X CJ • o c o C/5 Oh CD X 3 O £ £ o £ < bX) D X 3 'H-h 3 ’X o 3 c/5 C/5 O u an o cd S-H Oh .s X 3 "5b ■ 3 bJO X X 3 0/ H 1 o 2 £ < X 3 3 S-H ~ 3 3 < O b/j ’> £ bi 3 X bjj D X X b/O 3 • X X 3 u rb bij to JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY 99(2), AUG. 2002 313 Fig. 4: Roosting site on Pongamia pinnata (about 4 m from the ground) after the fledgling began accompanying its parents. The overhead leaves award protection from avian predators, while there is no leaf cover from below. The rear portion of the birds is also visible MISCELLANEOUS NOTES various portions of the plumage. In between these seemingly casual activities, they make sallies to the roost for a thorough inspection, where they spend not more than a few seconds. Finally, after spending about 1 5-20 minutes in the vicinity of the roost, one of the adults, along with the juvenile, moves towards the roosting site. The birds may give a loud “tik-tik- tik-” in rapid succession just before settling in the roost. This is more pronounced on sensing a cat in the garden (there has always been at least one cat, often two, in our compound). Surprisingly, the presence of the felines has not deterred them from roosting here. The other adult bird, a male (as could be identified from the longish tail feathers) has always been observed to join the other two later (after another 10-15 minutes). During the time he spends alone, he is largely silent, usually engrossed in vigorous preening. Once in the roost, the three birds become silent and cuddle together i.e. one sandwiched between the other two (Plate 1 , Fig. 1 ). The three birds mostly sit facing the same direction. This, however, is by no means a rule. Interestingly, the juvenile is always in the centre. Here it must be added that before the breeding season, the adults never cuddled together (Plate 1, Fig. 2). They would roost on the same shrub, but on separate twigs. Later, during late August, i.e. after the commencement of the breeding season, the couple was seen cuddling together during the night (Plate 1, Fig. 3). They continued to roost jointly in the beginning of October, while raising a litter in one of the adjoining buildings (nesting site not known). I would like to bring to the notice of the readers that in the past, I have seen similar behaviour among oriental white-eye Zosterops palpebrosus and ashy prinia Prinia socialis. In both instances, the number of birds involved were three, indicating the presence of a juvenile. Such cuddling behaviour, therefore, seems to be a part of the parental care amongst tiny solitary roosters. Another interesting analogy can be made between the loud calls of the tailorbirds and the gregarious birds like house sparrows Passer domesticus and house crows Corvus splendens , which are also very noisy just before occupying their roosts. If disturbed before sunset, they leave the roost giving loud “tik-tik-tik-” calls, but return at the first opportunity. In fact, one evening, though human movement frequently disturbed the birds, they refused to abandon the roost. Each time the birds returned in a few minutes, accompanied by loud alarm calls. The reluctance to evacuate the roost highlights the unwillingness to search for a new site in the fading light. The roosting site is invariably a thin horizontal branch about 1-4 m from the ground. It always has a few overhanging leaves on the top, forming a roof (Plate 1, Fig. 4), although there may or may not be any foliage at the bottom. This clearly suggests that the birds make concerted efforts at selecting a site that is concealed from nocturnal avian predators, and are not too concerned about predators that are likely to approach from below. In addition to this, protection from heavy downpour during monsoon may also govern such a site selection. Once, for a couple of weeks, they even roosted within a metre from our ground-floor balcony and seemed indifferent to the continual disturbance caused by the lamps. They seem to be using human presence/movement to their advantage, as many predators avoid heavily inhabited areas. While roosting, they crouch on both legs and tuck their heads over their shoulders (Plate 1, Fig. 1), beneath fluffed feathers. They continue to occupy a particular site for days (20-25) until disturbed or till the leafy roof withers away, a distinct possibility during winter. If bothered during the night, they refuse to abandon the roost even if an interloper actually touches them. This ploy of remaining motionless may be a defence strategy against arboreal reptilian predators that are more sensitive to movement than visual clues. However, they tend JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002 315 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES to change the roost on the subsequent night. The newiy selected roost is always on another plant, but within the garden. They keep changing the location during the following nights until satisfied with the fresh one. Other noteworthy observations are: a) In spite of roosting in close proximity of human habitations, they never use man ' made structures for the purpose. b) The adults roosted much closer to the ground, approximately 2 m, whereas after being accompanied by the fledgling the roost was always beyond 3 m, mostly about 4 m from the ground. c) They tolerate house sparrows at quite a close distance. d) They refuse to abandon their roost even if they realize that the observer is watching them. e) Mosquitoes were noticed parasitizing on the sleeping birds. f) In the morning, the birds leave the roost just before it gets bright i.e. the same time when the house sparrows start getting restless and noisy. g) Firecrackers had little effect on the birds as they continued to occupy the site during Diwali festival. From the above observations it is clear that a medium sized tree with low horizontal branches e.g. Pongamia pinnata , Bntea monosperma , Ficus hispida or a shrub like Adhatoda vasica or Ixora sp. is all that is required to attract birds even in crowded cities like Mumbai. Just as it is vital to study the diurnal habits of various fauna, understanding their nocturnal habits, if not more, is equally essential for devising appropriate conservation strategies. The survival of every species is dependent on a proper blend of its adaptation to the geographical cycles of winter and summer, day and night. The common tailorbirds in my garden have accentuated just that. With the help of the BN HS, 1 intend to ring these birds in order to monitor their roosting/ breeding behaviour in the coming year. Acknowledgement 1 am grateful to Dr. Asad R. Rahman i for deliberating on the initial draft. March 2, 2000 ANISH P. ANDHER1A 2, Sugar Building, VP. Road, Andheri (West), Mumbai 400 058, Maharashtra, India. 20. SIGHT RECORDS OF CRIMSON SUN BIRD AETHOPYGA SIPARAJA IN ISLAMABAD, PAKISTAN The crimson sunbird Aethopyga siparaja has been recorded in the Himalayas west to Kangra in Himachal Pradesh (Ripley 1982). During the winters of 1 999-2000 and 2000-200 1 , I observed this species at Islamabad, Pakistan, far to the west of its hitherto known ranee and the first records for this country, apparently. The first observation was one juvenile/ eclipse male Aethopyga siparaja , seen for about 15 min, at about 15 m range, through 10 x 50 binoculars, at 1000 hrs on December 11, 1999 in an Islamabad garden (Sector G 6/4), feeding from eucalyptus flowers. The bird appeared uniform dark olive-green above, uniform yellowish-olive green below (perhaps slightly more yellow towards the belly), with a dull reddish-pink chin and throat (not extending to breast). No evident eyebrow, and dark eye prominent on an otherwise plain face. No ashy or grey tinge on either upperparts or underparts. No yellow was noticed on the rurnp, nor any white tips to tail feathers, which was short and 316 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES square-cut with no graduation. The bill appeared longer and more prominent than in Mrs. Gould’s sunbird Aethopyga gouldiae . The bird called often, a short “tzip”. In spite of keeping a lookout, it was not seen again in the winter of 1 999-2000. I identified this bird as a juvenile male Aethopyga siparaja , based primarily on (i) the reddish throat, which I believe is not shown by any other South Asian Aethopyga in either female, juvenile or eclipse plumage; (ii) lack of any grey tinge above or below, uniform yellowish- green underparts and no noticeable yellow on the rump, which excludes A. gouldiae and A. saturata; (iii) lack of prominent white tips to tail feathers, which excludes A. gouldiae and A. nipalensis\ and square-cut, not graduated tail, which excludes A. nipalensis. Female/juvenile male A. ignicauda , in my experience, usually shows some orange or red in the tail. The species reappeared in winter 2000- 2001 in the same locality, with at least four individuals present in the area. It was first seen on January 3, 2001, one juvenile/eclipse male similar to the 1999 bird. Between then and February 4, four different birds were seen, one long tailed male; one juvenile/eclipse male showing extensive bright red chin, throat and ‘shoulders’ (lesser wing coverts); another juvenile/eclipse male (the first one mentioned above) with duller red chin and throat and no red on ‘shoulders’; and a female, with uniform yellowish-olive underparts and no red at all. Twos or singles were seen frequently through February, then less frequently in March with my last record (an adult long-tailed male) on March 26, 2001. Some mutual antagonism (territorial? sexual?) was noted on several occasions, e.g. one bird flying out, calling in flight, to chase another that appeared nearby. The birds were active throughout the winter day, and were seen feeding on remnant flowers of bottlebrush Callistemon , and Eucalyptus , and catching insects in flight. They were quite vocal, and apart from the distinctive “tzip”, also called “tzip-ip-ip” or “chit-chit-chwe”. A subdued song (subsong?) was heard on a couple of occasions, prolonged and continuous over two or three minutes, comprising a mixture of the rapidly repeated call notes alternated with short bouts of warbling or chirruping, rather sparrow-like in tone and character. On January 25, three birds — the long tailed male, the juvenile/eclipse male with red shoulders and the female — were together in a leafless Broussonetia papyrifera (introduced paper mulberry) tree with the two males showing apparent antagonistic behaviour towards each other, cocking their tails, raising their beaks to show off the scarlet on their chests and ‘singing’ at each other. Seen through binoculars at close range (under 10 m), the long-tailed male was noted to be in moult. The chin, throat and breast were largely bright scarlet, but some olive-green feathers remained on either side of the lower throat and sides of face, and the mantle showed an admixture of crimson and green feathers. The purple malar stripes had developed, and the yellow rump was visible when the bird cocked its tail. Tail moult appeared complete, with fresh iridescent green central tail feathers, and iridescent green patches were visible on the forecrown. Similarly, the short tailed juvenile/ eclipse male with red ‘shoulders’ also showed a few iridescent green feathers on the forecrown and scarlet patches on the sides of the breast. By mid-February, both these features were much more pronounced and extensive, but the tail was still short. Seen again closeiy on March 11, a long-tailed male had apparently completed moult and was in fine plumage. I am familiar with all five South Asian Aethopyga sunbird species, in India, Nepal and Bhutan. The observations in 2001 confirm the identification of the species beyond doubt. Mrs. Gould’s sunbird Aethopyga gouldiae, which normally occurs west to the Sutlej Valley in Himachal Pradesh, has appeared as a wanderer in winter in the Islamabad neighbourhood JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002 317 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES (Roberts 1992). The only other sunbird species recorded in Pakistan is the purple sunbird Nectarinia asiatica , a summer visitor to the Islamabad area. It had arrived in Islamabad by early March 200 1 , and for almost three weeks, both species could be seen in the same general area. No mutual interaction was noted between the two species. As far as I am aware, there are no previous records of the crimson sunbird from Pakistan. Seasonal movements of nectar-feeding birds have been recorded in literature, and the wandering of A. gouldiae far to the west of its usual range is probably explainable by the paucity of flowering plants in winter in the western Himalayan foothills. Islamabad, with its large variety of planted exotics, may be attractive to Ripley, S.D. (1982): A Synopsis of the Birds of India and Pakistan, 2nd Edn. Oxford University Press, Bombay. Pp. 532-533. 21. FOLIAGE-DEW BATHING ZOSTEROPS PALPEBROSUS, Birds have been seen to employ a variety of methods for body-maintenance including bathing and anting. Bathing is defined as any of a variety of stereotyped movements by birds to wet (and/or dust) their feathers (Ehrlich et al. 1994). Bathing is a common phenomenon and is believed to help allay itching, remove parasites and clean feathers, which require considerably more care than hair or skin, due to their structural complexity and importance for birds (Welty and Baptista 1988). Birds have been seen to bathe in dust, snow, sunlight, rain and water. In passerines, bathing is characteristically hurried, with continuous movement, usually in water and rain (Welty and Baptista 1988). Five types of bathing have been listed for passerines: i. splashing while standing in shallow water, ii. hopping in and out of water, iii. dipping down from flight (into stagnant or nectar-feeders for this reason. But the records of A. siparaja over two winters in Islamabad may indicate that the species has begun to winter regularly in the area, and possibly even have expanded its breeding range to the adjacent Margalla ravines or Murree foothills where suitable habitat is certainly available. March 10, 2000 SUDHIR VYAS Deputy High Commissioner, High Commission of India, G-5 Diplomatic Enclave, Islamabad, Pakistan, C/o DB Section, Ministry of External Affairs, South Block, New Delhi 110 00 1, India. N C E S Roberts, T.J. (1992): The Birds of Pakistan, Vol. 2 (Passeriformes). Oxford University Press, Karachi. Pp. 391. IN ORIENTAL WHITE-EYE FAMILY ZOSTEROPIDAE moving water) thus splashing water over their moving body, iv. bathing in the rain and lastly, v. shuffling about amongst wet vegetation (Freethy 1982). The last type seems to be rare and we report our observation on the oriental white-eye Zosterops palpebrosus (Temminck) indulging in this kind of bathing. At the Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun, November 1999, we observed a flock of about 25 oriental white-eyes bathing in the moisture on vegetation at 0900 hrs. In November, night temperature falls to nearly 10 °C and, in the mornings, much of the vegetation is covered with dew. The birds were seen to rush into the top-most branches of small-leafed shrubs by turn. They would brush vigorously against the vegetation to make the water fall upon them, and go into bouts of vigorous shaking accompanied 318 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES by continuous, rapid opening and closing of wings. Each bird took an average of two seconds (range: 1-4 seconds). It was not clear if an individual bird repeated bathing or whether it was always a different individual bathing. Following the bath, which we have termed “foliage-dew bathing” the birds preened themselves briefly before resuming foraging. White-eyes are known to be mainly arboreal although they have been seen to fly down to bathe in ‘runnels’ (Ali and Ripley 1974), they have not been seen to foliage-dew bathe. Most forms of body maintenance behaviour are thought to be inborn in birds. Young goshawks have been seen to go through bathing movements on bare ground on seeing a brood mate splashing in water (Bond 1942), and hand- reared motmots have been observed to go through bathing movements, at the mere sound of rainfall (Smith 1977). Since dew is available only a few months in the year, this form of bathing is prevalent only in those months. We have observed white-eye in other parts of Dehra Dun and India, and questioned other bird watchers, but have not encountered this behaviour elsewhere and the behaviour is rare in the species. The habit could have been learnt either by accident or by watching other species of birds foliage-dew bathing. It is possible that the behaviour is peculiar to a small local population wherein the young ones learned by watching older birds. In the case of North American wren- tits Chamaea fasciata, which wet their feathers from dew on vegetation, this is thought to be an adaptation to an environment where water is scarce (Ehrlich et al. 1994). If this is true for all birds which foliage-dew bathe, only dew is likely to be used, and never rain water on leaves, since water is plentiful on the ground during the rainy season. Hence, the term foliage-dew bathing would be far more appropriate than foliage- moisture bathing, which would encompass all sources of moisture on foliage, including rain. It was particularly interesting to note that the oriental white-eye maximized the use of water falling from leaves by choosing small-leafed plants, in spite of dew being present on larger leaves. Water falling from a cluster of smaller leaves tends to have a large number of smaller droplets, as each leaf cannot accumulate enough water to form large drops. The cluster also covers a larger area underneath. In contrast, a single large leaf, when shaken, forms fewer numbers of larger drops that have to be “caught” properly to be useful to the bird for bathing. It was unclear why they chose the top-most branches all the time. We thank R. Jayapal for going through the manuscript and giving helpful suggestions to improve it. February 23, 2000 K.S. GOPI SUNDAR Wildlife Institute of India, P.B. 18, Chandrabani, Dehra Dim 248 00 J, Uttaranchal, India. CAPT. JAIDEEP CHANDA Indian Military Academy, Dehra Dun 248 001 , Uttaranchal, India. References Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1974): Handbook of Birds of India University Press, Oxford. Pp. 355. and Pakistan. Volume 10: Flowerpeckers to Buntings. Freethy, Ron (1982): How birds work. A Guide to Bird Oxford University Press, Bombay. Pp. 58. Biology. Blandford Press, Dorset, Pp. 176. Bond, R.M. (1942): Development of young Goshawks. Smith, S.M. (1977): The behaviour and vocalizations of Wilson Bull. 54: 81-88. young Turquoise-browed Motmots. Biotropica 9: 127- Ehrlich, P.R., D.S. Dobkin, D. Wheye& S.L. Pimm (1994): 130. The Birdwatcher’s Handbook. A Guide to the Natural Welty, J.C. & L. Baptista ( 1 988): The Life of Birds. 4th History of the Birds of Britain and Europe. Oxford edn, Saunder’s College Publishing, New York. Pp. 37. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002 319 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 22. FOOD HABITS OF THE BAYA WEAVER PLOCEUS PHILIPPINES (LINN.) {With one plate ) The bay a weaver Ploceus philippinus (Linn.) is known to feed on food grains, caterpillars, small insects, moths, spiders, orthopterous insects, grass and weed seeds (Ali, S. 1945, the birds of kutch, pp. 42-43, OUP; Roberts, T.J. 1992, the birds of Pakistan, Vol. 2. pp. 493-496, OUP). Weaverbirds are known to exploit fallen grains and raid standing crops. However, in Kerala State, southern India, George reported several baya weaver catching frogs in a rice Feld and eating them. (JBHNS, Vol. 70, 1973). Harshad Pomal, a nature photographer from Bhuj, photographed (Plate 1) a baya weaver feeding on a gecko. The female carried the gecko to the nest to feed her young ones. He observed this at Khari river area near Bhuj. This appears to be a new item in the food list of the baya weaver and hence worth reporting. March 2, 2000 S.N. VARU Junavas, Temple Street, Madhapnr, Kutch, Gujarat 370 020, India. 23. FOUR NEW BIRD RECORDS FOR SINDH, PAKISTAN Ever since moving into our home in Karachi in March 1994, which is in Dhoraji adjacent to a small park, there has been a single magpie ( Pica pica ) around the park. It has occasionally not been sighted for up to a week, but has always reappeared. It tends to frequent with house crows (which sometimes mob it). About two weeks ago, I last saw the bird looking less pristine than usual, and tending to hide in bushes, and I have not seen it since — I fear it may have died. In any event, it was here for over five years. The nearest part of the species’ normal range is in central Baluchistan. It is unclear if it is a genuine wild bird that strayed here, or an escape, though I am not aware of the bird being kept caged. On May 31, 1998, while experimenting with a newly acquired adaptor on my Kowa spotting telescope, I photographed a single spotted munia ( Lonchura punctulata ) in an acacia bush in the adjacent park in Karachi (Kidney Hill Park). T.J. Roberts (1992, birds of Pakistan) reports the bird as being confined to northern Pakistan. To my knowledge, there is no previous record in Sindh. Tom Roberts suggests that this could have been an escape, and that possibility cannot be excluded. On June 28, 1998 at Gizri Creek in Karachi (between the Defence and Korangi areas) I saw and photographed a woodchat shrike {Lanius senator) — a bird I am familiar with from southern France. This bird was present for about 4 hours in the morning, but was not seen on subsequent visits. Roberts does not include the species in his birds of Pakistan, but Ali and Ripley (1996) in their pictorial guide to the birds of the Indian subcontinent mention an unconfirmed record from Quetta, Baluchistan. Since the species nests in Iran, it is not an entirely unexpected occurrence. Alas, Gizri creek is no longer the excellent bird habitat of old, as the creek bed has been reclaimed by filling it with sand, presumably for future buildings. On October 18, 1998, on the Hub River, which separates Sindh and Baluchistan, about 45 km northwest of Karachi and about 2.5 km upstream from the upper tidal limit, I saw and photographed a black-capped kingfisher {Halcyon pileata). It flew across the river several 320 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Yarn, S.N.: Baya weaver Ploceus philippinus Plate 1 Fig. 1 : Baya weaver Ploceus philippinus feeding on a gecko JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002 321 HARSHAD POMAL MISCELLANEOUS NOTES times, and was therefore seen in both Sindh and Baluchistan. The bird was seen again one week later (October 25) by my wife and my driver, but was not present on subsequent visits. Roberts does not include it in his book, but he and others tell me that it has been seen and reported on at least one previous occasion in Pakistan, by a bird watcher from Finland, I believe, who was resident in Islamabad for some years. Eds: The author has photographic evidence of all the sightings. February 23, 2000 ROGER A.L. SUTTON Faculty of Health Sciences, The Agha Khan University, Stadium Road, PG. Box No 3500 Karachi 74800, Pakistan. Present Address: 3254 W. 20'h Avenue, Vancouver, BC, Canada. 24. ADDITIONS TO THE CHECKLIST OF THE BIRDS OF PAKISTAN, VOL. 1 NON-PASSERIFORMES, VOL. 2 PASSERIFORMES In these volumes published by Oxford University Press, Karachi in 1991 and 1992 respectively, 1 attempted to set out what was currently known about the status of birds recorded within the political boundaries of modern Pakistan, including a baseline checklist totaling 663 species. Since that time nine, if not ten, additional species have been recorded and in the majority of instances, these records have been published by the observers. As the author of the above volumes, I feel that it is desirable to gather together these scattered records and to give them wider publicity, especially as some of them could be new subcontinental records. 1. Eurasian Dotterel Eudromias morinellus In the Buceros Vol. 3, No. 2 , 1998, titled “Standardised English Names of the Birds of the Indian Subcontinent - A Proposal”, the common dotterel is omitted, presumably because the panel of experts did not know of, or did not accept, the inclusion of this species in “An Annotated Checklist of the Birds of the Oriental Region”, by Inskipp, Lindsey and Duckworth (1996), though the Editors of that Buceros issue state that they are following the taxonomic sequence of that Checklist. Since Inskipp et al. do not give any distributional data for inclusion of the common dotterel, our Pakistan record is important. In January 1991, a Swedish ornithologist and long-time resident in Karachi, visited the Hab Valley along the border between Sindh and Baluchistan Provinces, in an arid mountainous region with savannah vegetation and a large dam-reservoir. He and his wife were alone, but spotted a winter plumage common dotterel, which Rolf Passburg photographed. This photograph was subsequently enlarged and widely exhibited in November 1991 during the visit of the Duke of Edinburgh to Pakistan, in his capacity as President of WWF International. The new record attracted widespread interest at that time. Compared with other similar plumaged plovers, the dotterel has a distinctive broad creamy white supercilium extending around to the nape, as well as a thinner creamy white band separating the “dirty” buff upper breast and throat from the paler buff lower breast. Passburg wrote to the Oriental Bird Club (OBC) about this record, but without sending the photograph, and for some reason OBC refused to accept it. Rolf has kindly promised to send me a copy of this photo, which 1 shall, in due course, deposit with the Picture Library of the BNHS. 2. Black-capped Kingfisher Halcyon pileata A single individual frequented the mangrove creeks just west of Karachi in January 1 995, and this new record was published by Juha JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002 323 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Kylanpaa in Forktail , Vol. 13, 1998. p. 126. In October 1998, another individual was photographed by Dr. Roger Sutton in the Hab Valley, close to the site where the dotterel was seen. Dr. Sutton kindly gave me copies of several of his photographs, and he has submitted a paper to the Oriental Bird Club on this and other sightings (In press). 3. Oriental Tree Pipit Anth us liodgsoni A party of 5 ornithologists visited Pakistan for a faunal survey under the Himalayan Jungle Project, which focused on the best remaining population of the western tragopan. While dealing with officialdom in Islamabad, they recorded all the birds in that area, which is very rich in both flora and animal wildlife. In scattered forest on the banks of the Rawal Lake, they observed a party of 1 5 oriental tree pipits from January 29 to February 4, 1996. Their record was published in official reports to several sponsoring agencies, including BirdLife International, WWF Internationa! and the World Pheasant Association. They cited my exclusion of this pipit in Volume 2 of Birds of Pakistan. 4. Redwing Turdus iliacus In February 1989, Juha Kylanpaa, a Finnish Missionary, picked up the decomposed body of a thrush in his compound in Tonk, in Dera Ismail Khan, NWFP. He sent the wings to a museum in Finland, where they confirmed that it was a redwing. After much time and correspondence, Juha sent one wing to me and I was able to deposit this wing in the collection of the Bombay Natural History Society. 5. Woodchat Shrike Lanius senator Undoubtedly a new subcontinental record. Again it was Dr. Roger Sutton who discovered this individual, frequenting thorn scrub along the banks of Ghizri Creek, just on the southeastern outskirts of Karachi. I have several copies of clear photographs which he took of this bird, which was seen in late June 1998. 6. Common Reed Warbler Acrocephalus scirpaceus The Finnish diplomat, Mikko Pyhalaa made a number of valuable contributions to the ornithology of Islamabad region, during his posting to that capital city. During a visit to the Sindh Province in Larkana district, he observed three specimens of the reed warbler at Harnal Lake (27° 23' N; 67° 55' E) in Phragmites reeds, where he was able to compare it with A. stentorius and A. agricola , all three of which were seen in the same small area. He published this record of sighting the birds on January 12th 1996, in the first edition of the newly established Pakistan Journal of Ornithology. As published, he observed them at close range with binoculars and telescope, and noted the pale supercilium only in front of the eye in A. scirpaceus , the noticeably smaller size and less vociferous song of A. scirpaceus compared with A. stentorius. Blyth’s reed warbler A. dumetorum is only reliably separable in the hand (wing formula), but in Pakistan this species always stays in low bushes and trees in dry land areas and is not found in water emergent Phragmites. A. scirpaceus being such a difficult bird to observe, and known to breed in Iran and to winter in Afghanistan, its occurrence this far to the East is not surprising. Dr. Aleem Ahmad Khan, OBC’s representative for Pakistan, also told Pyhalaa that he had seen this species, but unfortunately I do not have details and Miko Pyhalaa is now serving in South America! 7. Little Bunting Emberiza pusilla Rafiq Ahmad Rajpoot, at the time a junior Field Officer working for the Sindh Wildlife Board, visited the Karchat Information and Conservation Centre in the south western corner of the Kirthar National Park in Sindh. During a survey from October 24 to November 1 1, 1992, he recorded 120 different bird species, including 324 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2). AUG. 2002 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES three little buntings, which were drinking from a small seepage zone, in this dry hilly area. I know Rajpoot personally and he is a keen birdwatcher, with a good knowledge of reptiles and mammals as well. All the other species recorded in his Karchat list had been previously recorded there. Rajpoot did not have a camera; his observations were not substantiated by any other companion, and have not been submitted for publication. All the known records of this uncommon wintering visitor to the Subcontinent have been in the far northern areas of the Himalayas. His report and lists of species are deposited in the Sindh Wildlife Board Library, open to the public. However, the record should be treated with caution and probably should not be included in a definitive Checklist. 8. Indian Pied Hornbill Anthrcicoceros malabaricus Seen on March 13, 1999 in Mirpur, in Poonch by Major Erkki Kallio. This was in the area presently on the Pakistan held side of the Cease-fire line. 9. Long-tailed Broadbill Psarisomus dalhousiae Seen on August 21, 1999 by Major Erkki Kallio at Kotli in Poonch, presently on the Pakistan held side of the Cease-fire line. Both these records i.e. the Indian pied hornbill and long-tailed broadbill, are of interest in that they must be the westernmost record for these species from the Himlayas. 10. European Robin Erithacus rubecula Seen on February 13, 2000 in Islamabad at the foot of the Margalla Hills. A second European robin seen by Juha Kylanpaa in Kao forest below Dunga Gali, Hazara district on December 28, 2000. Major Erkki Kallio, a keen and reputed birdwatcher in his own country, was working with UNMOGIP as a Military Observer, and based in Islamabad at the time, and Juha Kylanpaa is a missionary based in the NWFP, who has already published two articles of his bird sightings in Pakistan, in the Journal of the Oriental Bird Club, Forktail and he was the individual who picked up a wing of the redwing Turdus illiacus deposited by me in the BNHS Collection, as mentioned above. I was so surprised at the robin sightings that Major Kallio kindly sent me a slide that he took of the bird, and there is no mistaking his identification. I understand from him that it has also been recorded in India for the first time in 1999 at Rajouri, also in Poonch, and this information was passed on by Erkki to the Indian Deputy High Commissioner Sudhir Vyas in Islamabad, who also writes in the JBNHS. I think it is important to record unusual distributional records where they represent extensions of known range. Sadly, so often there is shrinking of range of so many species, and in the case of the European robin it is not normally considered a long distance migrant. February 23, 2000 T. J. ROBERTS Cae Gors, Rhoscefnhir, Nr. Pentraeth, Anglesey LL75 8YU, United Kingdom. 25. SOME INTERESTING BIRD RECORDS FROM THE DELHI AREA A four-year posting at Delhi from mid- 1995 to mid-1999 provided me with an opportunity to review the bird life in the area, and compare it with notes made during earlier periods of stay in 1977-79 and 1984-86 (Vyas 1995). In ten years, the city of Delhi has grown phenomenally, particularly to the east and south, and some of the most fruitful birding localities no longer exist. The formerly bird-rich marshes near the Coronation Pillar and Model Town in north Delhi have been drained and built upon. Large areas of reed beds about 5 km south of JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 99(2), AUG. 2002 325 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Okhla along the Agra canal near Madanpur village, which were a known locality near Delhi for species such as ruddy-breasted crake Porzana fusca, are now badly degraded, encroached upon and partially covered by landfills. Sultanpur Lake near Gurgaon, located 48 km south-west of Delhi, was dry during the winters of 1 997-98 and 1 998- 99, depriving the area of one of its most productive sites. Increased cultivation and construction in the neighbourhood of Sultanpur Lake, and the drainage of marshes and seasonal inundations in the surrounding area, has also reduced its attractiveness for birds. On the other hand, the pond area of the new Okhla Barrage (now Okhla Barrage Bird Sanctuary) has emerged as an excellent new site, attracting a number of water and marsh species, in spite of the extremely high level of water pollution. The bird habitats of Okhla Barrage have been described by Urfi (1993). For other sites referred to in this note GanguJi (1975) provides a general reference. The following are new or interesting records for the Delhi area, and some notes on bird population trends made during this period. Yellow bittern Ixobrychus sinensis , Chestnut bittern Ixobrychus cinnamomeus and Black bittern Dupetor flavicollis : All appear to have increased considerably in the Delhi area compared to the 1 980s. The expansion of reedbed habitats in the Okhla reservoir area consequent to the construction of the Okhla Barrage is a likely reason. Yellow and chestnut bitterns were found common and breeding (juveniles seen) at Okhla between May 4 and end August. Black bitterns also appeared at Okhla from early May, and one was recorded as late as October 12, 1997 in reed beds near Madanpur. Great bittern Botaurus stellar is: One bird was flushed from a reedbed at Sultanpur on December 25, 1996. There are old 19th century hunting records from about Delhi [Anon (= Editors) 1949], but I know of no subsequent mention for Delhi specifically. Glossy ibis Plegadis falc'tnellus : Formerly recorded irregularly about Delhi (Flutson 1954, Ganguli 1 975), but it was not noted in the 1970s and 1980s. It seems to have reappeared, with about 25 present at Sultanpur in the winters of 1995-96 and 1996-97. The lake was dry in winter 1997-98. Bar-headed goose Anser indicus : Numbers appear to have fallen considerably in the Delhi area over the last ten years. Compared to a minimum of 1,500-2,000 at Sultanpur in winter 1985-86, numbers both at Sultanpur and Okhla did not exceed 10 in the winters of 1995- 96, 96-97 and 97-98. Common shelduck Tadorna tadorna : Unlike earlier, this species was regularly recorded during the observation period at Okhla in winter, with 11 through December 1995, 12 on March 16, 1997 and 14 through February 1998. Greater scaup Ay thy a marila : At least two birds, one male in breeding plumage and one female, were part of a mixed gathering of about 4,000 other duck, including common pochards Ay thy a fer in a, tufted pochards Aythya fuligula and red-crested pochards Rhodonessa rufina at Okhla Barrage on February 22, 1998. This species has been listed for Delhi by Ali and Ripley (1968) and, Abdulali and Pandey (1978), but is not mentioned by Ganguli (1975). Besra sparrowhawk Accipiter virgatus : One bird was observed a little after noon on December 30, 1997 in a thickly wooded patch in the Delhi Zoological Park. The bird flew into the canopy of a large tree where it perched; turning occasionally to ward off attacks by mobbing house crows Corvus splendens. Thus, I could observe the bird well for about five minutes, at about 20 m range with 10 x 50 binoculars. It appeared about the same size or slightly smaller than the shikra Accipiter badius and (i) dark brownish-slaty above, darker and much less clear grey than shikra, no pale eyebrow; (ii) noticeably square-cut, brownish- 326 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES grey tail with three broad dark bars running across (including the central tail feathers), very conspicuous; (iii) dark grey cheeks contrasting in a clear line with a whitish throat, which showed a clear, broad, dark, mesial stripe and a few dark brown streaks in a restricted band on the lower throat; (iv) entire breast and belly barred broadly with rufous (much more coarsely than is usual in shikra), with each rufous bar somewhat wavy and edged with a thin dark line above and below; thigh feathers also barred, but the bars narrower and browner, (v) eyes pale yellow, cere greyish, not contrastingly noticeable, legs yellow. It did not show a reddish shield on the breast. This bird is definitely not Accipiter nisus or badius , and, on the basis of the characters above, I identify it as a besra sparrowhawk, probably a female bird. Through December 1 997, much of northern India including Delhi had an extended spell of cold and very foggy weather, which may explain the presence of this bird out of its usual range. I do not know of any earlier record of besra sparrowhawk from the Delhi area. Eurasian hobby Falco subhuteo. There are very few records of this species from Delhi. One was hunting over trees in the evening in central New Delhi on September 21, 1997. Other, more generalized comments on birds of prey populations about Delhi may be made. These are based on a subjective comparison with my own records in the 1970s and 1 980s (Vyas 1 995). There has been a striking decline in the numbers of Agui la eagles wintering about Delhi. I had no records of the eastern Imperial A. heliaca or tawny eagles A. rapax in the years 1995-1998. Steppe eagles A. nipalensis are now scarce in Delhi’s immediate vicinity, whereas up to the 1980s they were a feature of the riverain tract along the Jamuna river. While spotted eagles A. clanga still appeared in small numbers about Okhla and Sultanpur, I had no records of Pallas’ fish-eagle Haliaeetus leucoryphus or osprey Pandion haliaetus in the 1990s. Similarly, there were no records of laggar Falco jugger, though single red-headed falcons Falco chicquera appeared in February and July 1998 at Okhla and Sultanpur respectively. The number of Indian white-backed vultures Gyps benghalensis has fallen dramatically, in keeping with trends reported widely from elsewhere in India (Rahmani 1998). This decline was evident even between 1996 and 1999, and several occupied nests within city limits in New Delhi were abandoned. The species bred commonly in the city earlier, but in 1999, I could count just three occupied nests on roadside trees in a restricted residential area in New Delhi, compared to 18 in this area in 1996. Demoiselle crane Grus virgo : There are not many records from Delhi, and usually of small numbers. Two flocks, of about 80 and 26 birds respectively, were seen at Okhla in the morning of September 29, 1996, flying in from the east and then turning north along the river. The number of common crane Grus grus has dropped sharply. While a few hundred used to winter regularly about Sultanpur in the 1970s and 1980s, I recorded only three during the current period at Sultanpur on December 26, 1996. Watercock Gallicrex cinerea: Its earlier recorded locality in the area, the marshes near the Coronation Pillar in north Delhi, no longer exists. Instead, watercocks (mostly males in breeding plumage, but also females) were recorded quite commonly, and almost certainly breeding, at Okhla between June 22 through August each year from 1996 to 1998. Their numbers have increased, with up to five individual males seen foraging separately one evening. Birds were noted flying around in the evenings in June and early July, and dropping into marsh; often seen feeding in open grassy patches in the mornings and evenings. White-winged black tern Chlidonias leucopterus'. The species has occasionally been seen in breeding plumage about Delhi in May- June(Gangu!i 1975, Vyas 1995). On October 20, JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002 327 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 1996, there was at least one with a scattered flock of whiskered terns Chlidonias hybridus at Okhla in (first) winter plumage; on August 30, 1997, there were three with whiskered terns and gull- billed terns Gelochelidon nilotica over flooded fields near Madanpur village. All showed the characteristic head pattern (black eye patch clearly separated from black nape, no streaking on crown), noticeably smaller bills, whitish-grey rumps and absence of any dark patches on side of breast. On the latter occasion, one bird had the solid brown mantle of the juvenile white- winged. Their flight action was slightly quicker, with deeper wing beats, than nearby whiskered terns which offered opportunities for direct comparison. It may well turn out to be a regular, but overlooked, autumn passage migrant. Black tern Chlidonias niger : On September 28, 1998, two Chlidonias terns at the Okhla Barrage were noted flying together, quartering an area of shallow water along the bank with abundant submerged weeds, in close proximity to but separate from large numbers of whiskered terns which were mostly in winter plumage or moulting from juvenile to first winter plumage. They were observed with 10 x 50 binoculars, at times as close as 15 m range. Attention was first attracted to them because of their head pattern, strikingly different from the extensively streaked crown, framed below by a black line behind the eyes and around the nape, of the whiskered terns. These two birds showed (i) a solid black Uskull-cap” contiguous with a broad black eye patch curving back and down from each eye; (ii) grey mantle with a few dark brown feather edges on the lower scapulars; (iii) no marked pattern on the wings; (iv) pale grey rump and tail, the latter with an admixture of white towards the bases of the feathers; (v) white underparts with very noticeable dark grey patches on sides of breast; on one bird the side patches were extensive (extending quite far down into the white breast), smudgy and medium-grey, and on the other, they were smaller, more sharply defined and darker grey; (vi) smaller bills compared to whiskered terns nearby; (vii) no difference could be noted in flight action. I have seen black terns in winter plumage (outside India) earlier, and, after consulting available literature, I am convinced of my identification of these two birds as black terns, moulting out of juvenile into first-winter plumage. The species has been recorded once for Delhi by H.W. Alexander (Hutson 1954, Ali and Ripley 1969). Indian plaintive cuckoo Cacomantis passerinus. Vocal, and seen about Okhla, Gurgaon and Sultanpur from late-May/June onwards through 1996-1998. Quite common, as three calling males were recorded over a 2 km transect along the river, south of Okhla on June 1, 1997. Although there are earlier scattered records, this cuckoo now appears to have established itself about Delhi as a regular summer/monsoon breeding visitor. 1 had neither seen nor heard this species in Delhi in the 1970s and 1980s. Bengal bush-lark Mirafra assamica (race assamica ): This species is not listed for Delhi in the earlier checklists, and may be a new arrival in the area with the creation of suitable habitat due to the formation of the Okhla Barrage. It was present and probably breeding through 1 996- 98 at Okhla and Madanpur, in overgrown fallow fields adjacent to marshy depressions and borrow-pits. The birds were tame, and afforded frequent opportunities for close observation when they fed along earth-tracks. It was noted between early March and October 12, and may possibly be a year-round resident, though it was not seen in winter. Persistent song and display flights in the mornings between March 16 - August 17, with a maximum of three displaying birds (presumed to be males) and at least one more present at Okhla, one bird still singing and suspected nesting (dropping into grass repeatedly at the same spot) on August 17, 1997. One was seen at Madanpur on October 12, 1997. Attention was first attracted to the bird by 328 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES its different song flight compared to little eastern skylarks Alauda gulgula displaying in the same area. It is very different also compared to that of red-winged bush-larks Mirafra erythroptera, which are not in this habitat. The bird soared fairly high in the air, alternately fluttering a little way up and then gliding a little way down with wings in a V, tail partly fanned and legs hanging loose all the time, thus executing a continuous series of short shallow dips or scallops in the air; this continued for several minutes before gliding down to the ground. A high-pitched, rather hoarse, thin, song accompanied each dip, each phrase sounding like “i’eezz” of less than one second duration. The birds displayed almost continuously in the morning, at least till 1030 hrs. 1 would like to point out that this song flight does not match that described for this species in Ali and Ripley (1972), but is closer to the description in Alstrom (1998). Common raven Corvus corax. Two birds were seen at the Buddha Jayanti Gardens, New Delhi Ridge, on March 20, 1996. One, chased by a house crow, soared up to circle and soar with a group of Egyptian vultures Neophron percnopterus , another flew across the gardens to perch in a leafless silk-cotton tree, where it was studied through binoculars from about 25 m, at about 0930 hrs in bright light. A house crow mobbed it, offering direct comparison of size. The bird appeared almost twice the size of the house crow, the size difference evident both in flight and at rest; broad wedge- shaped tail noticeable even at rest; massive beak, not heavily bowed as a jungle crow’s; forehead not steeply rising from the bill as in a jungle crow; highly Refer Abdulali, H. & J.D. Pandey (1978): Checklist of the Birds of Delhi, Agra and Bharatpur. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay. Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1968- 1974): Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan, Vol. 1 ( 1 968); Vol. 3 ( 1 969); Vol. 5 (1972). Oxford University Press, Bombay. Alstrom, P. (1998): Taxonomy of the Mirafra assamica glossy plumage; throat hackles visible, but not protruding; stately flight, with slower wing-beats than house crow; and its soaring silhouette were all distinctive. The birds did not call. I have never recorded soaring behaviour in house crows, or the jungle crows Corvus macrorhynchos that turn up occasionally about Delhi. There have been only a few old records from the Delhi area, where it was considered as rare or vagrant (Ali and Ripley 1972, Ganguli 1975). Bristled grass-warbler Chaetornis striatus : I recorded at least 5 birds (including 3 singing and displaying males) in areas of waterlogged grass and reeds, and in a reed- covered borrow-pit at Okhla, between August 4 and mid-September 1996. The birds were seen by several members of the Delhi Bird Club, photographed and reported to the Oriental Bird Club (Grewal 1996). In 1997, there were none at Okhla - there had been massive disturbance of the reedbeds due to malaria control operations - but at least one displaying and calling bird was present in reedbeds near Madanpur in August 1997. There was no evidence of its presence in 1998. I can trace only one earlier record from Delhi, in 1962 (Donahue 1967). May 23, 2000 SUDHIR VYAS Deputy High Commissioner, High Commission of India, G~5 Diplomatic Enclave, Islamabad (Pakistan). C/o DB Section, Ministry of External Affairs, South Block, New Delhi 1 10 001, India. E N C E S complex. Forktail 13: 97-107. Anon (= Editors) ( 1 949): The Birds of Delhi and District. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 48: 811-812. Donahue, J.P. (1967): Notes on a collection of Indian Birds, mostly from Delhi. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 64: 410-429. Ganguli, U. (1975): A Guide to the Birds of the Delhi JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(2), AUG. 2002 329 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Area. Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi. Grewal, B. (1996): Bristled Grassbird Chaetornis striatus at Okhla, Delhi. Oriental Bird Club Bulletin 24\ 43-44. Hutson, H.P.W. (1954): The Birds about Delhi. The Delhi Birdwatching Society, Delhi. Rahmani, A.R. (1998): A possible decline of vultures in India. Oriental Bird Club Bulletin 28: 40-41 . Urfi, A.J. (1993): The Birdlife of Okhla. Sanctuary Magazine 13/15 1993: 50-53. Vyas, S. (1995): Checklist of the Birds of the Delhi Region: An Update. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 93: 219-237. 26. THE GHARIAL GAVIALIS GANGETICUS IN INDRAVATI RIVER? Occurrence of the gharial ( Gavialis gangeticus) in River Mahanadi, Orissa was often thought to be an exception. However, data presented in Singh and Bustard (1982a, 19Q2b) and Singh (1992) suggested occurrence of gharial in all major rivers of Orissa and in the Godavari in Andhra Pradesh. There was no information, then, from the River Indravati, Madhya Pradesh State. When one of us (MKR) was in the Indravati area during 1981, a person informed of the occurrence of a long snouted crocodilian in the river some 16-20 years earlier, estimated to be around the late 1960s. The description obviously referred to the gharial, and differed from the description of the short snouted mugger ( Crocodylus palustris). In 2000, when other people in the same area were interviewed by MKR, they had no idea of the occurrence of the gharial in Indravati river. The people questioned were young and probably had had no exposure to the previous generation’s experiences. The presence of gharial in the River Indravati appeared to have vanished from the memory of the locals. Nonetheless, the single piece of information about the ghariaPs occurrence in Indravati in the late 1 960s bridges the gap in the distribution of the gharial, strengthening the view that Gavialis gangeticus had a continuous distribution from River Mahanadi to Godavari along eastern India. Any further information on the gharial ’s occurrence in Orissa, Madhya Pradesh and Andhra Pradesh will be gratefully acknowledged. January 1 8, 2002 M. K. RANJITSINH Krishnasar, 5, Tiger Lane, Off W6 Lane, Sainik Farms, New Delhi 100 062, India. L.A.K. SINGH Similipal Tiger Reserve, Baripada, Orissa 757 002, India. References Singh, L.A.K. & H.R. Bustard (1982a): Geographical the gharial Gavialis gangeticus { Gmel in) from the distribution of the gharial Gavialis gangeticus Brahmani and Baitarani rivers in Orissa. J. Bombay (Gmelin) in Orissa, India. British Journal of nat. Hist. Soc. 79(2): 424-426. Herpetology 6, (1982): (7): 259-260. Singh, L.A.K. (1992): Distribution of Gavialis gangeticus. Singh, L.A.K. 1 0 cm gbh), the maximum height and gbh of every tree were recorded. For each tree, the height of the first twig and the first branch present were noted. Presence or absence of foliage on a tree was noted every 2 m, from 2 m to the maximum height of the tree. In order to quantify the shrub or undergrowth, every 10 m x 10 m quadrate was divided into 25 cells measuring 2 m x 2 m. The maximum height of the shrub/undergrowth in each such cell was noted. Analysis All analysis was done using SPSS version 7.5. Results and Discussion One hundred flocks were spotted in the teak plantation and 188 observations (of five minute scans) were made on them. For the same number of flocks spotted in the Moist Deciduous Forest, 178 observations were made. Since the number of observations for each flock varied from one to three, each observation was taken as a unit for analysis. A total number of 6 1 species of birds and two species of primates were found in Moist Deciduous Forest and 57 species of birds and one species of giant squirrel (Ratufa indica) was found in teak plantations (Appendix 1). It has to be noted that different species of warblers and flower-peckers were not recorded to the species level due to difficulty in identification. Spending more time to identify these species could have resulted in missing other species. Common golden-backed woodpecker Dinopium javanense and lesser golden-backed woodpecker Dinopium benghalense were together considered as “golden-backed woodpecker” due to unclear identifications in the initial stages of the fieldwork. However, since they work as a guild (gleaners and probers), the problem in sampling may not be very significant in a mixed species foraging flock. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002 391 VERTICAL STRA T1FICA TION OF BIRDS IN MIXED SPECIES FLOCKS Of all the birds in both habitats (Appendix 1), only 10 species (Table 1) were common (>11%) to both the habitats. The foraging heights of all birds in both the habitats were compared using t-test and showed that the birds forage significantly higher in Moist Deciduous Forests (P^O.QOO) (Table 2). The data on 10 common species was used for analysis of vertical stratification. There seemed to be a definite trend in the vertical stratification of birds. Forty-five different combinations of the ten common species were analysed for variability in foraging height using paired sample t-test for the various combinations (Table 3). Most combinations of species (97%) showed that mutually exclusive foraging heights are used by most species except the following: white-bellied drongo Dicrurus caerulescens occupied similar heights as the bronzed drongo Dicrurus aeneus (P=0.346) and velvet-fronted nuthatch Sitta frontalis (P=0.803); large woodshrike Tephrodornis gularis had foraging heights similar to scarlet minivet Pericrocotus flammeus (P=0.406) and white- bellied drongo (P=0.611); great tit Parus major shared its foraging height with the bronzed drongo (P=0.8 1 3) (Table 3). The greater racket- tailed drongo Dicrurus paradiseus was found in the lower parts of both the habitats. Bronzed Table 1 : Ten common species in the flocks of Moist Deciduous Forest and Teak Plantation Species Abbreviation Great racket-tailed drongo RTD Bronzed drongo BDR White-bellied drongo WBD Scarlet minivet SCM Small minivet SMM Large woodshrike LWS Great tit GTT Jungle babbler JBB Golden-backed woodpeckers GBW Velvet-fronted nuthatch VFN Table 2: Comparison of foraging heights of all birds in Teak Plantation and Moist Deciduous Forest Habitat N Mean S.D S.E P Teak 1910 7.41 5.13 0.12 0.000 MDF 1528 8.86 5.62 0.14 drongo preferred a higher stratum than the greater racket-tailed drongo. Such vertical stratification has also been observed by Vijayan (1984) at Thekkady. The reason for the same was hypothesised to be the avoidance of inter-specific competition. The minivets were found from Table 3: Paired t-test p values for difference in height of ten common species of birds in Teak Plantation and Moist Deciduous Forest BDR WBD SCM SMM LWS VFN JBB GTT GBW RTD 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0094 BDR 0.3461 0.0000 0.0000 0.0011 0.0000 0.0000 0.8133 0.1001 WBD 0.0617 0.0000 0.6115 0.8032 0.0000 0.0036 0.0003 SCM 0.0140 0.4069 0.0009 0.0000 0.0002 0.0000 SMM 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0033 0.0000 LWS 0.0253 0.0000 0.0429 0.0000 VFN 0.0000 0.1656 0.0000 JBB 0.0000 0.0000 GTT 0.0292 Values in bold are not significant 392 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002 VERTICAL STRATIFICATION OF BIRDS IN MIXED SPECIES FLOCKS middle to higher zone, while the jungle babbler Turdoides striatus seemed to prefer the undergrowth and ground. The other gleaners and probers (golden-backed woodpeckers, great tit, velvet-fronted nuthatch and large wood shrike) were found in varying heights in the middle strata. Significant differences in foraging height were found in five species (Table 4) when the foraging heights of each of the 10 common species were compared between the two habitats. Various factors were considered for the difference in foraging height. Height of trees If the height of the trees in one habitat is greater than the height of trees in the other, it could naturally cause an increase in the foraging height of the birds. It must be noted that the teak plantations in Parambikulam are fairly old: the trees have undergone silvicultural thinning and the surviving trees are considerably tall. The analysis of tree heights in the two habitats revealed that teak plantation trees were taller than the moist deciduous forest trees (P=0.017) (Table 5). Thus, if the birds’ choice of foraging Table 4: Comparison of mean heights between two habitats of ten commom species (t-test) Species Habitat Mean height (m) N Std. Deviation Std. Error t-value P RTD MDF 6.51 108 3.86 0.37 2.1548 0.0334 Teak 5.42 108 3.36 0.32 BDR MDF 9.44 217 4.72 0.32 3.7180 0.0002 Teak 7.85 217 3.67 0.25 WBD MDF 10.17 29 5.68 1.05 3.0203 0.0053 Teak 5.93 29 4.05 0.75 SCM MDF 11.96 221 5.43 0.37 2.2537 0.0252 Teak 10.82 221 5.14 0.35 SMM MDF 12.15 62 4.41 0.56 -0.1697 0.8658 Teak 12.32 62 5.31 0.67 LWS MDF 9.87 46 4.94 0.73 0.1990 0.8430 Teak 9.67 46 4.44 0.65 VFN MDF 9.38 64 4.24 0.53 2.0770 0.0419 Teak 8.00 64 3.18 0.40 JBB MDF 2.07 119 2.10 0.19 2.2630 0.0254 Teak 1.51 119 2.11 0.19 GTT MDF 7.64 22 5.18 1.10 -1.5655 0.1324 Teak 9.64 22 4.36 0.93 GBW MDF 7.26 76 4.32 0.50 1.1147 0.2685 Teak 6.41 76 4.00 0.46 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002 393 VER TIC A L S TRA TIFIC A TI ON OF BIRDS IN MIXED SPECIES FL O CKS Table 5: Comparison of habitat parameters between Moist Deciduous Forest and Teak Plantation Habitat Parameter Mean height (m) N S.D S.E t-value P MDF height 19.57 10 2.89 0.91 -2.9290 0.017* Teak height 24.9 10 3.6 1.14 MDF branch 7.28 10 1.86 0.59 -3.2950 0.009* Teak branch 10.69 10 2.55 0.80 MDF twig 6.47 6 2.9 1.21 -0.8600 0.9350 Teak twig 6.69 6 3.3 1.38 MDF undergrowth 1.806 10 0.85 0.27 6.4496 0.0001* Teak undergrowth 0.285 10 0.19 0.06 * significant height was due to an increase in the height of trees in the two different habitats, a reverse trend (lower foraging height in Moist Deciduous Forest) should have been seen. However, the foraging height of all birds was greater in the Moist Deciduous Forests. Hence, tree height does not appear to contribute directly to the foraging height of birds. However, the sample size for the habitat parameters data is small (N=10 in each habitat) and the result may be biased. Foraging manoeuvre The drongo used sallying as its foraging manoeuvre on most occasions (96%, Table 6) (X2, p=0.000). It has been said that foraging manoeuvre of a species could change depending on the kind of prey that is pursued. This difference in prey selection could also cause an increase in foraging height of the birds if there is a variation in prey availability. The foraging manoeuvre, however, did not seem to vary and most birds followed the same method of prey capture in both the habitats. Pinkowski (1979) in his study of Sialia sp. suggested that sallying might be a more expensive foraging manoeuvre than gleaning or flycatcher-gleaning. However, flycatcher-gleaning and gleaning involve active searching for prey, and when the drongos (the predominantly sallying species in this study) form part of mixed species foraging flocks, they Table 6: Percentage use of foraging manoeuvre by ten common species in the two habitats Species Habitat Gleaning Sallying Fly- catcher Probing gleaning RTD teak 2.78 94.44 2.78 MDF 2.78 96.30 0.93 BDR teak MDF 1.27 98.10 100.00 0.63 WBD teak MDF 1.47 6.90 95.59 93.10 2.94 SCM teak 93.25 0.42 5.91 0.42 MDF 97.29 1.36 1.36 SMM teak MDF 96.77 87.10 4.84 3.23 8.06 LWS teak 95.65 4.35 MDF 93.02 4.65 2.33 VFN teak 0.77 99.23 MDF 1.56 1.56 96.88 JBB teak 50.00 0.71 49.29 MDF 61.34 38.66 GTT teak MDF 100.00 100.00 GBW teak MDF 100.00 100.00 wait for the prey to be flushed by the gleaners. With abundant aerial prey, sallying might be bio- energetically more viable. Pinkowski (1979), in his model, proposed that if an aerial prey is visible, it would be the first choice for the fly- 394 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002 VERTICAL STRA TIFICA TION OF BIRDS IN MIXED SPECIES FLOCKS catching species. No significant difference in foraging behaviour was seen in different species between the two habitats. This could be because there is no functional difference in the flocks of both the habitats; i.e. gleaners flush insects and sallying species follow, irrespective of the habitat that the flock is in. Drongos at Thekkady preferred sallying when in the presence of other birds, but flycatcher-gleaning when feeding solitarily (Vijayan 1984). This further corroborates the choice of sallying as a preferred foraging manoeuvre for the drongos in mixed species flocks. Studies by Latta and Wunderle (1996) and Jones (1977) also show that shifts in the foraging manoeuvre of birds occur when feeding in flocks compared to feeding solitarily, possibly due to inter- specific competition. However, there is no data on this aspect in this study. Substrate characters and use The availability of suitable substrate was thought to be a limiting factor in vertical stratification of a species. A species’ preference for a particular substrate and its availability at a higher stratum in moist deciduous forest could cause an increase in the foraging height. It was found that many species showed a strong preference for a particular substrate. For the sallying drongos whose prey capture location is air, the substrate is merely a perching site, whereas for gleaners it is also the location of prey capture. The drongos preferred twigs (X2, P=0.000) compared to other substrates (Table 7). However, the height of primary twig in the two habitats did not seem to show any significant difference (P=0.93) (Table 5) and thus, the change in foraging height of the drongos might not be due to the change in height of its preferred substrate, twigs. In Teak Plantations, there was an increased use of branches by the drongos as a substrate, compared to that in the Moist Deciduous Forest, but the percentage of usage Table 7: Percentage use of substrate by ten common species in the two habitats Species Habitat Foliage Twig Branch Trunk Ground/ undergrowth RTD teak 0.69 84.03 14.58 0.00 0.69 MDF 0.00 94.44 2.78 0.00 2.78 BDR teak 0.63 86.03 13.33 0.00 0.00 MDF 0.92 96.77 2.30 0.00 0.00 WBD teak 0.00 69.12 30.88 0.00 0.00 MDF 0.00 93.10 6.90 0.00 0.00 SCM teak 87.34 7.17 5.06 0.42 0.00 MDF 92.31 5.43 0.90 0.00 1.36 SMM teak 87.10 8.06 4.84 0.00 0.00 MDF 95.16 3.23 1.61 0.00 0.00 LWS teak 4.35 76.09 1957 0.00 0.00 MDF 1.16 65.12 32.56 0.00 1.16 VFN teak 0.00 30.77 36.92 32.31 0.00 MDF 0.00 28.13 32.81 39.06 0.00 JBB teak 1.79 18.57 20.36 3.57 55.71 MDF 0.84 20.17 22.69 10.92 45.38 GTT teak 27.27 63.64 9.09 0.00 0.00 MDF 57.14 34.29 2.86 0.00 5.71 GBW teak 0.00 2.55 26.75 70.06 0.64 MDF 0.00 3.95 31.58 64.47 0.00 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002 395 VERTICAL STRA TIFICATION OF BIRDS IN MIXED SPECIES FLOCKS (14.58%) (Table 7) was not high. However, the height of primary branching is greater in teak plantations (P=0.009) (Table 5) and this shift in substrate does not seem to have influenced the foraging height of the drongos. This indicates that the drongos shifted their foraging perch to higher twigs in the Moist Deciduous Forest. One of the reasons for such a shift could be the greater abundance of twigs at a higher stratum in moist deciduous forest than in Teak Plantation, but habitat data are inadequate to draw a conclusion in this regard. The drongos were also found to be following the gleaning species most of the time (e.g. bronzed drongo followed scarlet mini vet and greater racket-tailed drongo followed golden-backed woodpeckers) (Robin 2000). There appeared to be an increase in the foraging height of the scarlet minivet (P=0.02) and this could have caused an increase in the foraging height of the bronzed drongo (P=0.03). The increase in foraging height of the scarlet minivet could be due to the availability of suitable substrate at a higher stratum in the Moist Deciduous Forest. However, there seemed to be no significant change in the foraging height of the small minivet Pericrocotus cinnamomeus between the two habitats (P=0.86) and a difference, if any, could be due to inter-specific competition as they are conspecifics. The foraging height of only the great tit showed a decrease in the Moist Deciduous Forest (P=0. 13) while the large woodshrike showed no significant change (P=0.86) (Table 4). There seemed to be no significant change in substrate use of minivets, nuthatch, great tit and golden-backed woodpeckers (Table 7). The jungle babbler used undergrowth and ground more than any other substrate in both the habitats (X2, P=0.000). However, there seemed to be a higher percentage of ground/undergrowth utilisation in Teak Plantation and the utilisation of trunk in Teak Plantation was lower than in Moist Deciduous Forest (Table 7). The high percentage of use of ground/undergrowth could be because Teak Plantation had less undergrowth cover than Moist Deciduous Forest (X2, P=0.000). Hence, the visibility of the babblers could have been higher in Teak Plantations. The babblers might also have preferred to feed on open ground than in denser undergrowth, as visibility of insects might be higher. Since “undergrowth/ground” was considered as a single substrate, quantitative information on whether ground is preferred to undergrowth is not available. Higher utilisation of trunk in Moist Deciduous Forest could be due to difference in prey availability. However, more data are required to confirm this. There seemed to be an increase in the height of undergrowth in Moist Deciduous Forest (P=0.0001) (Table 5) and the preference of jungle babbler towards undergrowth/ground could have resulted in an increase in its foraging height (P=0.025) (Table 4) in Moist Deciduous Forest. The velvet-fronted nuthatch used branches, trunk and twigs almost evenly but the use of branches seemed to be higher in Teak Plantations (Table 7). Since the primary branching was found lower in Teak Plantations (Table 5), the increase in height in Moist Deciduous Forest could be due to its choice of higher parts of twigs, trunk and branches other than primary branches. The shift in the substrate could also be due to inter-specific competition as found in Alatalo’s (1981) study where great tits and gold crests shifted their foraging sites depending on the presence or absence of each other. Other possible reasons The availability of food in a higher area in Moist Deciduous Forest could be one of the possible reasons for an increase in the foraging height of most birds in that habitat. However, this aspect was not studied. Inter-specific competition and niche separation could be another reason for an increase in foraging height. However, most of the species occurring in Moist 396 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002 VERTICAL STRATIFICATION OF BIRDS IN MIXED SPECIES FLOCKS Deciduous Forest were found in Teak Plantations as well, and a shift in foraging height in all birds due to this factor is unlikely. The presence of most birds in a higher stratum could also be due to the phenological phase of the trees in the habitat during the study period. The Moist Deciduous Forests were sampled in February- March when leaf fall had commenced, whereas Teak Plantation was sampled in December- January, before the leaf-fall. Pinowski (1979) states that dead and leafless branches might offer an unobstructed view for searching prey. He found eastern bluebirds using higher perches in summer than in spring. The birds could thus have shifted to a higher stratum in the season when leaf-fall occurred. However, sampling of the mixed species flocks in the two habitats in the same season could have given a more accurate idea of the same. The study reveals that not only is there a clear vertical stratification in the birds in mixed species flocks, but also a difference in the usage of height between the two habitats. However, the factors influencing the shift in foraging height could be any of the above or could be a combination of various factors. Different species may have different factors affecting their vertical stratification. Carefully designed long-term studies should be carried out considering various seasonal changes, to determine these causes. Quantification of prey base, though difficult in the field, has to be done in order to understand prey availability and response of different species Refer Alatalo, R.V. (1981): Interspecific competition in tits, Parus sp. and Goldcrest Regains regulus : Foraging shifts in multispecies flocks. Oikos 37: 335-344. Altmann, J. (1974): Observational study of behaviour. Sampling methods. Behaviour 49: 227-267. Bates, H.W. (1863): The naturalist on the river Amazon. John Murrays, London. 2nd edn (reprint). University of Berkeley, 1 962 (not seen in original). Croxall, J.R (1976): The composition and behaviour of some mixed species bird flocks in Sarawak. Ibis 118: to it. Colour banding individual birds might facilitate identification of individuals and would result in greater understanding of the dynamics of the flocks. Acknowledgements This study was undertaken as a part of the first author’s Masters dissertation funded by a Salim Ali - Lok Wan Tho Fellowship from the Bombay Natural History Society. I thank the Kerala Forest Department, especially PCCF Mr. Surendran Asari, DFO Parambikulam Sanctuary, Mr. Rajan Sehgal, Range Officer Sungam, Mr. Gopalakrishnan for permission and support for the field work. Thanks are due to various people for their help in crucial situations: Dr. R. Sugathan for encouragement, Mr. J.C. Daniel for initial discussions, Mr. Shankar Raman and Ms. Divya Muddappa for discussions, help and hospitality, Dr. Gunasekharan for help with analysis of data. Dr. N.V. Joshi, Dr. Chris Knogge, Dr. S. Vairavel, Dr. Ajith Kumar, Dr. V.S. Vijayan, Dr. Lalitha Vijayan, Dr. M.B. Krishna, Mr. Surendra Verma, Mr. Robert John, Mr. Samba Kumar and Ms. Nandini Rajamani for discussions at various stages. Dr. K. Sankar (WII), Dr. Asad Rahmani, Mr. Archis Grubh, Mr. Brian Sykes for helping me with the literature search; Librarians of SACON, BNHS and French Institute for the library facilities, and Mr. Karupuswamy for his assistance in the field. NCES 333-346. Champion, H.G. & S.K. Seth (1968): A revised survey of the forest types of India. Government of India, New Delhi. Pp. 404. Eguchi, K. & S. Yamagishi (1993): The composition and foraging behaviour of mixed species flocks of forest living birds in Madagascar. Ibis 135: 91-96. Greig-Smith, P. W. ( 1 978): The form, structure and function of mixed species insectivorous bird flocks in West African Savanna woodland. Ibis 120: 284-297. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002 397 VERTICAL STRA TIFICATION OF BIRDS IN MIXED SPECIES FLOCKS Herrera, C.M. (1979): Ecological aspects of heterospecific flock formation in a mediterranean passerine bird community. Oikos 33: 85-96. Jepson, P. (1987): Mixed-species bird flocks. OBC bulletin No. 5: 13-17. Jones, S.E. ( 1 977): Co-existence in mixed species Antvvren flocks. Oikos 28: 366-375. Krebs, J.R. ( 1 973): Social learning and the significance of mixed species flocking of chickadees. Can J. Zool. 51: 1275-1288. Latta, S.C. & J.H. Wunderle (1996): The composition and foraging ecology of mixed species flocks in pine forests of Hispaniola. Condor 98: 595-607. MacDonald, D,W. & D.G. Henderson (1977): Aspects of the behaviour and ecology of mixed species bird flocks in Kashmir. Ibis 119: 481-491. Morse, D.H. (1970): Ecological Aspects of some mixed species foraging flocks of birds. Ecol. Monogr. 40: 118-168. Morse, D.H. (1977): Feeding behaviour and predator 1 avoidance in heterospecific groups. Bio Science. 27: 332-339. Ogasawara, K. ( 1 965): The analysis of the mixed flock of the family Paridae in the botanical garden of the Tohuku University, Sendai. Sci. Rep. Tohoku. Univ. Sen IV (Biol) 31: 167-180. Pinkowskj, C.B. (1979): Foraging ecology' and habitat utilization in the Genus Sialia. In: The role of insectivorous birds in forest ecosystems (Eds.: Dickson, J.G., R.N. Conner, R.R. Fleet, J.C. Kroll & J.A. Jackson). Academic press. Pp. 165-191. Powell, G.V.N. (1989): On the possible contribution of mixed species flocks to species richness in neotropical avifaunas. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 24: 387-393. Robin, V.V. (2000): Species composition and vertical stratification of birds in mixed species flocks at Parambikulam, South India: A comparison between two habitats. Technical Report submitted to the BNHS, pp. 28. Stanford, J.K. (1947): Bird parties in forest in Burma. Ibis 1947: 507-509. Terborgh, J. (1990): Mixed species flocks and polyspecific associations: costs and benefits of mixed groups to birds and monkeys. Amer. J. Primatol. 21: 87-100. Vairavel, S.M. (1998): Ecology of Gaur with special reference to habitat utilisation in Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary, Kerala, India. Ph.D. Thesis. Valburg, L.K. ( 1 992): Flocking and frugi vory: The effect of social groupings and resource use in the common bush tanager. Condor 94: 358-363. Vijayan, L. (1984): Comparative biology of Drongos with special reference to Ecological Isolation. Ph.D. Thesis Bombay University. Pp. 404. Vijayan, L. (1989): Feeding behaviour of the Malabar woodshrike at Thekkady, Kerala. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 86: 396-399. Winterbottom, W. (1943): On woodland bird parties in Northern Rhodesia. Ibis 85: 437-442. Appendix 1: Percentage occurrence of birds and *mammals in flocks of two habitats Species Scientific name % Occurrence Teak % Occurrence MDF Bronzed drongo Dicrurus aeneus 78.19 66.85 Greater racket-tailed drongo Dicrurus paradiseus 61.70 51.69 Scarlet minivet Pericrocotus flammeas 48.94 51.12 Golden-backed woodpeckers Dinopium sp. 45.21 30.90 Large woodshrike Tephrodornis .gnlaris 11.17 24.72 Velvet-fronted nuthatch Sitta frontalis 40.96 24.16 Grey-headed starling Sturnus malabaricus 7.98 19.66 White-cheeked barbet Megalaima viridis 1.60 15.73 Small minivet Pericrocotus cinnamomeus 15.96 15.73 Great tit Parus major 11.17 15.17 White-bellied drongo Dicrurus caerulescens 34.57 14.61 Jungle babbler Turdoides striatus 26.60 14.61 Indian treepie Dendrocitta vagabunda 10.11 12.92 Red-whiskered bulbul Pycnonotus jocosv.s 2.66 11.24 Ashy drongo Dicrurus leucophaeus 15.43 10.67 Red-vented bulbul Pycnonotus cafer 7.45 10.67 Gold-fronted chloropsis Chloropsis aurifrons 6.91 10.67 Eurasian golden oriole Oriolus oriolus 3.19 10.67 Oriental magpie-robin Copsychus sau/aris 1.06 8.99 Brown-capped pygmy woodpecker Dendrocopos nanus 13.30 8.99 398 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002 VERTICAL STRATIFICATION OF BIRDS IN MIXED SPECIES FLOCKS Appendix 1 ( contd .): Percentage occurrence of birds and *mammals in flocks of two habitats Species Scientific name % Occurrence Teak % Occurrence MDF Plum-headed parakeet Psittacula cyanocephala 4.79 8.99 Black-headed oriole Oriolus xanthornus 6.91 8.43 White-bellied treepie Dendrocitta leucogastra 6.91 7.30 Warblers (various genera) 5.85 7.30 Iora Aegithina tiphia 3.72 6.74 Brown-eared bulbul Iole indica 1.60 6.18 Small yellow-naped woodpecker Picus chlorolophus 9.57 6.18 Asian paradise-flycatcher Terpsiphone paradisii 9.04 5.62 Common myna Acridotheres tristis 11.70 5.06 Asian brown flycatcher Muscicapa aauurica 2.66 3.37 Tickell’s blue-flycatcher Cyornis tickelliae 0.00 3.37 Yellow-fronted pied woodpecker Dendroscopus mahrattensis 1.60 3.37 Large green-billed malkoha Phaenicopterus tristis 1.60 3.37 Three striped palm squirrel Funambulus palmarum 3.19 3.37 Flowerpeckers Dicaeum sp. 3.19 2.81 Common woodshrike Tephrodornis pondicenanus 2.13 2.81 Spotted dove Streptopelia chinensis 6.38 2.81 Jungle owlet Glaucidium radiatum 0.53 2.25 Large cuckoo shrike Coracina macei 1.60 1.69 Heart-spotted woodpecker Hemicircus canente 1.06 1.69 Common hoopoe Upupa epops 1.06 1.69 Pied flycatcher-shrike Hemipus picatus 1.06 1.69 Ruby-throated bulbul Pycnonotus melanicterns giilaris 0.00 1.69 Drongo cuckoo Surniculus lugubrius 0.00 1.12 Bonnet macaque Macaca radiata 0.00 1.12 Blue-throated flycatcher Cyornis rubeculoides 0.00 1.12 Chestnut-headed bee-eater Merops leschenaulti 0.00 1.12 Asian fairy-bluebird Irena puella 4.79 0.56 Indian rufous babbler Turdoides subrufus 0.00 0.56 Black-naped monarch-flycatcher Hypothymis azure a 0.53 0.56 Little spiderhunter Arachnothera longirostra 1.06 0.56 Black-naped oriole Oriolus chinensis 1.06 0.56 White-breasted kingfisher Halcyon smyrnensis 2.13 0.56 Greater coucal Centropus sinensis 1.60 0.56 Black bulbul Hypsipetus leucocephalus 0.00 0.56 Nilgiri langur Presbytis johni 0.00 0.56 Black-headed babbler Rhopocichla atriceps 0.00 0.56 White-rumped munia Lonchura striata 0.00 0.56 Malabar whistling-thrush Myiophonus horsfieldii 0.00 0.56 Purple sunbird Neclarinia asiatica 2.13 0.00 Brown shrike Lanins cr is tat us 2.13 0.00 Rufous woodpecker Celeus brachyurus 0.53 0.00 Greyjunglefowl Gallus sonneratii 3.19 0.00 Common tailorbird Ortholomus sutorius 1.06 0.00 Asian koel Eudynamys scolopacea 0.53 0.00 Orange headed thrush Zoothera citrina 1.06 0.00 Small sunbird Nectarinia minima 1.06 0.00 Jungle crow Corvus macrorkynchos 1.06 0.00 Malabar giant squirrel Ratufa indica 0.53 0.00 * Mammals in bold letters JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002 399 ACTIVITY SCHEDULE AND HABITAT USE OF THE SLENDER LORIS LORIS TARDIGRADUS LYDEKKERIANUS' SlNDHU RADHAKRISHNA2 AND MEWA SlNGH3 Key words: slender loris, activity budget, moon phase, diet, tree species, intersexual differences The behavioural ecology of the nocturnal prosimian Loris tardigradus lydekkerianus in its natural habitat was studied for a period of 21 months. Twenty-eight identified study individuals belonging to different age-sex categories were observed for 2364 hours. Data collected on the general activity schedule of the species showed changes in response to the phases of the moon, and seasonal variations. Insects made up the greater portion of the diet of the slender loris, with fruits and gum being included to a small extent. Intersexual differences were seen in the height of trees used by the animals and heights at which the animals preferred to stay in the trees. Introduction The slender loris {Loris tardigradus) is one of the two nocturnal prosimians found in India. The species has been declared Vulnerable (IUCN 2000), yet little has been done to conserve this primate in the wild. The major stumbling block is the lack of complete information on its behaviour in its natural habitat. Though it was used extensively in anatomical studies (Rao 1 927, Swayamprabha 1983, Manjula 1984, Sarma and Kadam 1984) in the past and its reproduction studied in detail (Ramaswami and Kumar 1962, 1965; Ramakrishna and Prasad 1962, 1967; Kadam and Swayamprabha 1980; Izard and Rasmussen 1985), very little is known about its behaviour in the wild. In September 1996, a population survey of the slender loris conducted by Singh et al. (1999) discovered high densities of the subspecies lydekkerianus in the scrub jungles of the Eastern Ghats, South India. Singh et al. (1999) 'Accepted March, 2002 department of Psychology, University of Mysore, Mysore and National Institute of Advanced Studies, Bangalore, Karnataka, India. Present address: National Institute of Advanced Studies, Indian Institute of Science Campus, Bangalore 560 012, Karnataka, India, department of Psychology, University of Mysore, Manasagangotri, Mysore 570 006, Karnataka, India. recommended that these fragmented populations needed to be conserved, and emphasized the need for a long-term behavioural study to provide more data for management strategies. A study was therefore undertaken on the social behaviour of the slender loris L.t. lydekkerianus in its natural habitat. The data collected on its activity budget and habitat use is presented here. Study Area The Beerangi Karadu hill range (10° 29' N, 78° 10' E, altitude: 400 m above msl) of Ayyalur Forest range was chosen, as an earlier study (Singh et al. 1999) reported a high density of slender loris in this area. The climate is hot and humid (max. temp.: 34.19°C, min. temp.: 23.34°C, relative humidity: 80.74%), and the annual rainfall (mean: 869.6 mm) is received mostly from the northeast monsoon during September-October. The area spans about 16 ha of open dry scrub jungle. A road runs through, bisecting it into two different habitats. On one side lies the Reserved Forest, secondary degraded habitat rising uphill, and vegetation mainly Acacia , Euphorbia , Azadirachta , Albizia and Cassia. Though tree felling is illegal, it went on surreptitiously all the time. On the other side of the road lies a Tamarindus and Eucalyptus orchard, and fields bordered by Cocos nucifera. 400 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002 ACTIVITY SCHEDULE AND HABITAT USE OF SLENDER LORIS Except for the odd row of trees that provide contiguity, being planted closely, there is little canopy in this part of the study area. Prosopis , Commiphora and Azadirachta overgrown with lianas, provide a natural fence along the road; this was an important area of ranging for the loris. Methods The study began in October 1997 and concluded in June 1999. Observations of the first month were used to prepare an ethogram and decide upon a suitable sampling method. Observations were conducted on foot every night from dusk to dawn ( 1 800 to 0600 hrs). An animal was first spotted by its unique orange-red tapetal reflection to light, from more than 100 m away. It was then approached for identification and followed the rest of the night. Petzl headlamps covered with red cellophane were used, as red light did not disturb the animals and ensured better observation (Charles-Dominique 1977, Charles-Dominique and Bearder 1979). Instantaneous point and ad libitum sampling techniques (Altmann 1974, Anon. 1981) were used. A five-minute instantaneous sampling technique was employed to record the behavioural categories of the animal at night. A total of 22,834 instantaneous scans were collected: 21,019 scans on 28 identified individuals and 1,815 scans on unidentified loris. Study animals were identified by distinctive physical markings on their bodies and locomotory idiosyncrasies. Each scan recorded information on the identity of the individual, behaviour the animal was engaged in, time, moon phase, tree species, tree height, height of focal location of animal on tree, identity of nearest neighbour, inter-individual distance and vocalization. Ad libitum sampling was used to describe events (copulation, agonistic interactions) that occurred too quickly for regular sampling methods, or the sequences in activities like social behaviour, feeding, etc. which were not adequately represented in the focals. Six main behavioural categories were recognized: locomotion, exploration, feeding, inactivity, social, and self-directed. Locomotion refers to activity that occurred with no ostensible purpose of exploration. Its sub-categories were locomote, shift from one tree to another, shift from tree to ground, hesitation to complete shift to tree or ground, movement of just a pace or two. Exploration was defined as activity to investigate the environment. The sub-categories were forage, urine-mark and sniff. Feeding was recorded when a loris was observed ingesting. Food materials belonged to one of the three categories: insects (arthropods and other invertebrates), plant material (all plant parts) and gum (plant exudates). Inactivity was recorded when the animal was totally passive: sit, freeze, sleep, and pause. Social behaviour included all associative and agonistic encounters. Sub- categories of social behaviour were sleep together with other individual(s), locomote/ sit/ autogroom near another individual, allogroom, play, aggressive vocalization, physical fight, sniff conspecific, approach, carry infant, and carried by mother. Self-directed activities were those performed by the animal on itself: scratch, urine- wash, autogroom. The hours of loris activity were divided into thirteen categories, beginning from 1730 to 0530 hrs, with each category representing an hour. The phases of the moon were divided into two main categories according to the amount of light available: the light phase, from half-moon to full moon and then to half-moon, and the dark phase, from half-moon to new moon and then to half-moon. Rainfall conditions were recorded as the dry season from January to June and the wet season from July to December. Height of the tree and the height of the animal on the tree were classified into seven categories: undergrowth/ base of tree, < 1 m, 1-3 m, 3-5 m, 5-8 m, 8-10 m and 1 0-15 m. None of the trees in the study area were taller than 15 m. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002 401 ACTIVITY SCHEDULE AND HABITAT USE OF SLENDER LORIS Data Analysis Data analysis was carried out using the statistical package SPSS for Windows, Version 9.0. Percent values of scans were calculated for the habitat and behavioural variables, z tests (Gibbons 1971) were used in binomial situations to test for significant differences in the proportion of scans for any behavioural category. Chi Square goodness-of-fit tests were used to check if a particular behaviour or habitat variable was more significant than another. Intersexual differences were subjected to two-tailed analysis of variance test. Pearson correlation was used to test the degree of correlation between climatic factors and activity variables of the species. A step-wise multiple regression analysis was also run to see if climatic variables affected the activity schedule of the animal. Results Activity Budgets Calculation of percent scans showed that 47.27% of the general activity schedule of the species was exploration and 26.90% was inactivity. The number of scans for the different behavioural categories significantly differed from each other ( % 2 = 20877.39; df = 5; P < 0.01). The general activity schedule of the species was analysed for changes with respect to the hours of the night, moon phases and climatic variables (Table 1). The proportion of scans was significantly higher before midnight (1730 to 2330 hrs) for the behavioural categories: locomotion and self-directed; the proportion of scans for social behaviour was significantly higher after midnight (2330 to 0530 hrs). The proportion of scans was significantly higher in the dark phase of the moon for the exploration category and in the light phase for the inactive category. All the behavioural categories showed significant changes for the dry and wet seasons: locomotion, feeding, inactivity and self-directed behaviour increased in the dry season while exploration and social behaviour increased in the wet season. A Pearson correlation test of the climatic variables and the activity budget presented Table 1 : Activity budget of the slender loris Locomotion scans Exploration scans Feeding scans Inactivity scans Social scans Self scans General Activity Schedule 2998(13.17%) 10757(47.27%) 565 (2.48%) 6122 (26.90%) 1557(6.84%) 758(3.33%) Night hours 1730-2330 hrs 2330-0530 hrs z values 1414(13.68%) 1584(12.75%) 2.07* 4873 (47.16%) 5884 (47.37%) 0.32 272 (2.63%) 293 (2.36%) 1.32 2764 (26.75%) 3357 (27.02%) 0.47 621 (6.01%) 936(7.54%) 4 S4** 390 (3.77%) 368 (2.96%) 3.40** Moon Phases Light Phase Dark Phase z values 1534(13.18%) 1464(13.17%) 0.001 5216(44.80%) 5541 (49.86%) 7.63** 279 (2.40%) 286(2.57%) 0.86 3409 (29.28%) 2713(24.41%) 8.29** 801 (6.88%) 756 (6.80%) 0.23 403 (3.46%) 355(3.19%) 1.13 Seasonal Dry Season Wet season z values 1352(16.77%) 1140(12.70%) 7.50** 2208 (27.39%) 4709 (52.48%) 33.30** 240 (2.98%) 206 (2.30%) 2.78** 3512(43.56%) 1967(21.92%) 30.19** 273 (3.39%) 731 (8.15%) 13.17** 477 (5.92%) 220(2.45%) 11.40** *: p < .05 **: p < .01 402 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002 ACTIVITY SCHEDULE AND HABITAT USE OF SLENDER LORIS Table 2: Step-wise multiple regression on climatic variables and activity schedule of species Step Model Dependent Unstandardized Coefficients Standardized t Sig Variable B Std error Coefficients Beta 1 (Constant) -24.23 11.03 -2.20 0.06 Temp Max Locomotion 1.14 0.32 0.76 3.55 0.01 II (Constant) 26.65 4.41 6.04 0.000 Rainfall Exploration 0.15 0.04 0.79 3.88 0.004 III (Constant) 41.98 4.02 10.45 0.000 Rainfall Inactivity -0.11 0.04 -0.72 -3.07 0.010 IV (Constant) 50.48 12.68 3.98 0.004 Temp Min Self -1.84 0.53 -0.73 -3.46 0.010 Rainfall Self -0.03 0.01 -0.56 -2.64 0.030 significant negative correlations for rainfall and locomotion (r = -0.60), rainfall and inactivity (r = -0.72) and, minimum temperature and self- directed (r = -0.61). Significant positive correlations were seen for rainfall and exploration (r = 0.79), humidity and feeding (r = 0.60) and, maximum temperature and locomotion (r = 0.76). The results of a stepwise multiple regression (Table 2) on climatic variables and activity schedule showed that maximum temperature was the best predictor for locomotion, rainfall for exploration and inactivity, and minimum temperature and rainfall for self-directed behaviour. For the categories social and feeding, no variables were entered. Feeding Insects formed a significantly higher percentage in the diet of the slender loris (x2 = 876.69; df = 2; P < 0.01) at 91.48%, with plant material and gum forming 6.61% and 1.9% respectively. The insects consumed included ants (Hymenoptera), termites (Isoptera), stick insects (Phasmatodea), pungent smelling beetles (Coleoptera), silkworms, butterflies and moths (Lepidoptera), and several varieties of grasshoppers (Orthoptera) and slugs (Mollusca). Study individuals were seen feeding on the fruits of Securinega leucopyrus and Ziziphus oenoplia. They were also observed to stick their heads into the flowers of Eucalyptus, Tamarindus and Agave americana and suck at the pods of Prosopis juliflora. It could not be determined if they were sucking the nectar from the flowers or eating the ants in the pods and flowers. Study individuals were also seen licking gum from the bark of Albizia and Acacia trees. In a typical gum lick, the loris would cling to a tree trunk vertically, scrape at the bark with its toothcomb and lick the exposed sap. A gum lick usually lasted about two to five minutes, but in one case, a female licked gum from an Acacia planifrons for 15 minutes. Lorises were observed to cling vertically inside the Euphorbia, but it could not be ascertained if they actually licked gum from the plant. Habitat Use The tree and plant species most commonly used by the slender loris included Albizia amara. Acacia ferruginea, A. planifrons, A. leucophloea, A. nilotica, Prosopis juliflora , Euphorbia tortilis. Agave americana, Azadirachta indica, Tamarindus indica. Eucalyptus grandis. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002 403 ACTIVITY SCHEDULE AND HABITAT USE OF SLENDER LORIS Canthium parviflorum , Cassia fistula , Cassia auriculata , Securinega leucopyrus, Commiphora berryi, Strychnos nux-vomica , Holoptelea integrifolia, Bauhinia racemosa, Ziziphus oenoplia , Dichrostachys cinerea and Ipomoea staphylina. The four Acacia species (37.77%) were the main tree species used by the slender loris. The other important tree species were Azadirachta (15.04%), Euphorbia (13.10%), Albizia (9.92%), and Tamarindus (6.12 %). Lorises used trees 3-5 m and 5-8 m tall most often and almost equally (36.36% and 37.40% respectively). They stayed most often at heights of 3-5 m (51.26%), and 1-3 m (26.62%). The height of the tree used and the level at which the loris ranged, were found to be different for males and females. Univariate analysis of variance of tree height and the sexes showed that both adult males and females used the 3-7 m category most often (Mean: males = 80.16, females = 68.92). A significant interaction between the tree heights and the sexes (ANOVA: F 3 36 = 3 . 93; P < .05) indicated that, whereas the males used trees of 3-7 m more than the females, the females used trees of 1-3 m more than the male, (Mean of 1-3 m: females = 22.88, males = 9.61). Univariate analysis of variance of animal height and the sexes showed that both adult males and females stayed at heights of 3-5 m most often (Mean: males = 61.43, females = 41.16). A significant interaction between the sexes and animal height (ANOVA: F 3 36 = 4.41; P < 0.01) indicated that, whereas males stayed at 3-5 m more than the females, females stayed at 1-3 m more than the males (Mean of 1 -3 m: females = 34.71, males = 24.42). Discussion Activity Budgets Slender lorises spend a large part of their activity schedule in exploration, followed by inactivity. Self and social behaviours account for very little time, hardly 10% of their activity schedule. Though the results show that the time spent on feeding is minimum, the data only comprised observed feeding instances, which are difficult to record in a small-bodied, predominantly insectivorous, cryptic animal (but see Nekaris 2000). Slender lorises do not spend most of their waking life in social contact, as has been described for pottos (Anderson 1971). Even when a mother and offspring shared the same range, there was little contact between them at night. Most of the social behaviour was restricted to dusk and dawn, when the animals met to sleep together. Sleep group formation at dawn and the split-up at dusk was usually accompanied by allogrooming and play- wrestling. Though animals did sometimes meet during the night to allogroom and play-wrestle, they were not observed meeting to groom or sleep after the first five or six hours of activity as reported by Goonan (1993). Bushbabies travel faster and cover greater distance during lighter phases of the moon, due to greater ease in navigation under better viewing conditions (Bearder pers. comm.). In the slender loris, increased exploration is seen in the darker phase of the moon. This may be related to the cryptic strategy used by the slender loris that depends on stealth and concealment for protection from predators. In the study area, the rains of September- October caused a rise in the number of hymenopterans. Just after these rains, the Eucalyptus , Acacia leucopholea and Azadirachta flowered, and Securinega fruits appeared. This also probably caused an increase in the insect population. The increased explorations in the wet season could be attributed to these reasons. Animals were observed to continuously forage for insects in the first rain. The long foraging was followed by a long session of grooming. This explains why rainfall is a strong predictor of exploration, and to a smaller extent of self directed behaviour. Muller et al. (1985) suggest that the slender loris copes very 404 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002 ACTIVITY SCHEDULE AND HABITAT USE OF SLENDER LORIS well with high environmental temperatures on account of its long and slender limbs, small size and increased heat loss through evaporation. This may explain why the species shows increase in locomotion with rise in temperature. Feeding Slender lorises are predominantly insectivorous (Phillips 1931, Petter and Hladik 1970, Still 1905), they also eat flowers and fruits (Roonwal and Mohnot 1977, Johnson 1984). The present study records that they also feed on gum. Gums are complex polymerised sugars with protein and trace minerals, and are consumed by small-bodied primates to survive seasonal shortages of fruits and insects, and to make up for the low calcium levels in fruits and insects (Bearder and Martin 1980, Bearder 1987). It has been proposed that slender lorises would include a large amount of toxic insect prey in their diet (Rasmussen 1986, Rasmussen and Nekaris 1998). In the present study, some amount of repugnant insects was eaten (as evidenced by the slobbering and urine-washing displayed when eating the pungent smelling beetles). But as a complete identification of insects was not done, the extent of their role in the slender loris diet is not known (but see Nekaris 2000). Slender lorises have been reported to drink milk and water in captivity, by licking it off their fingers or lapping it like a dog from the bowl (Subramoniam 1957, Schulze and Meier 1995), but the study animals were never seen to consume anything liquid. They were frequently observed to suck on the thorns of Acacia trees, but it could not be ascertained if they did so to obtain liquid nourishment, or feed on insect larvae (Nekaris, pers. comm.). Study animals were never observed to eat invertebrates beyond the arthropod level (but see Nekaris 2000), though slender loris have been reported to feed on baby mice, birds, and gerbils in captivity (Kinnear 1919, Phillips 1931, Subramoniam 1957, Bishop 1964). Habitat Use The predominant use of Acacia by the observed lorises is probably due to the high insect densities on these trees. Acacia also provides gum and plant matter. Furthermore, the thorns must also prove a deterrent to predators. Wherever Acacia was available, study females preferred to leave their month-old infants in these trees (pers obs.). Next to Acacia , Azadirachta and Tamar indus were used for parking infants (pers obs.), possibly because of their height and the insect densities they support (Singh et al. 1999). All the major tree species used provide food and protection, either in terms of height from the ground ( Azadirachta , Tamar indus and Albizia) or by way of thorns (Acacia and Euphorbia). Slender lorises prefer to stay at heights of 3-5 m from the ground and use trees of heights 3-8 m. Nekaris (2000) observes that slender lorises used trees of mean height 5.6 m and ranged at an average height of 3.5 m. Height preference in the slender loris is probably related both to dietary requirements and safety from predators. Male slender lorises show greater locomotion than the females (Radhakrishna 2001). This probably results in them making a greater use of the connecting terminal branches found higher up in the trees. This would explain why male slender lorises tend to stay at greater heights and use taller trees more than the females. Conclusion These findings on activity patterns, diet and substrate use in the slender loris have important implications for its conservation. The slender loris has (a) a predominantly insectivorous diet, (b) preference for common tree species such as Acacia , Azadirachta and Euphorbia and (c) a high reproductive potential (Radhakrishna 2001). Several populations have also been found in close proximity to human habitations (Singh et al. 1999). Significant threats faced by the study population include JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY 99(3), DEC. 2002 405 ACTIVITY SCHEDULE AND HABITAT USE OF SLENDER LORIS disturbances caused by tree felling, resulting in loss of canopy contiguity, and deaths caused by vehicular traffic (Radhakrishna 2001, Singh et al. 1999). If these factors could be controlled, the management of slender loris for long term survival in the wild would become easier. Acknowledgements The study was funded by a University Grants Commission, New Delhi Fellowship and private donors. The first author gratefully acknowledges the support of her family and friends. Our sincere thanks to S. Theodore Refer Altmann, J. (1974): Observational study of behaviour: sampling methods. Behaviour 49\ 227-267 . Anderson, M. (1971): The potto family. Yale Alumni Magazine 35: 24-27. Anon. (1981): Techniques for the Study of Primate Population Ecology. Washington DC, National Academy Press. Bearder, S.K. (1987): Lorises, Bushbabies, and Tarsiers: Diverse societies in solitary foragers. In: Primate Societies (Eds.: Smuts, B.B., D.L. Cheney, R.M. Seyfarth, R.W. Wrangham & T.T. Struthsaker). Chicago, University of Chicago Press, pp. 11-24. Bearder, S.K. & R.D. Martin ( 1 980): Acacia gum and its use by bushbabies, Galago senegalensis (Primates: Lorisidae). Int. J. Primatol. I: 103-128. Bishop, A. ( 1 964): Use of the hand in lower primates. In: Evolutionary and Genetic Biology of Primates, Vol II (Ed: Buettner-Janusch, J.). New York, Academic Press, pp. 133-255. Charles-Dominique, P. (1977): Ecology and Behaviour of Nocturnal Primates. London, Duckworth. Charles-Dominique, P. & S.K. Bearder (1979): Field studies of lorisoid behaviour: Methodological aspects. In: The Study of Prosimian Behaviour (Eds: Doyle, G.A. & R.D. Martin). New York, Academic Press, pp 567-629. Gibbons, J.D. (1971): Nonparametric Statistical Inference. New York, McGraw Hill. Goonan, P.M. (1993): Behaviour and reproduction of the slender loris ( Loris tardigradus ) in captivity. Folia Primatologica 60: 146-157. IUCN (2000): 2000 IUCN Red Data List of Threatened Baskaran, CREA-Ramakrishnan, Anna Nekaris, Helga Schulze, Simon Bearder, Tab Rasmussen, Helena Fitch-Snyder and members of CRAB for encouragement and help. We also thank the Chief Wildlife Warden, Tamil Nadu for permission to work in the Reserved Forests of Ayyalur. But for the generous assistance of the Forest Department personnel of Dindigul and Ayyalur, particularly FRO Rajagopal and DFO Abbas, and the people of Ayyalur especially Santiago and Asu who assisted in the field, the quality of our fieldwork would have been much poorer. We are grateful to J. Jegadheesan, N. Malathi, D. Gopi and R. Adalarasan who helped in plant identification. NCES Animals. Gland, IUCN-The World Conservation Union. Izard, M.K. & D.T. Rasmussen (1985): Reproduction in the slender loris ( Loris tardigradus malabaricus). Amer. J. Primatol. 8: 153-165. Johnson, J.M. (1984): Diurnal activities of the slender loris, Loris tardigradus in the Mundanthurai Sanctuary, Tamil Nadu (India). In: Current Primate Researches (Eds.: Roonwal, M.L., S.M. Mohnot & N.S. Rathore). University of Jodhpur Press, Jodhpur. Pp. 389-395. Kadam, K.M. & M.S. Swayamprabha (1980): Parturition in the slender loris ( Loris tardigradus lyde/ckerianus). Primates 21: 567-571. Kinnear, N.B. (1919): Notes on the Malabar slender loris, Loris lydekkerianus. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 26: 836-837. Manjula, A. (1984): Changes in levels of proteins in the male reproductive system of the slender loris Loris tardigradus lydekkerianus (Cabrera). In: Current Primate Researches (Eds.: Roonwal, M.L., S.M. Mohnot & N.S. Rathore). University of Jodhpur Press, Jodhpur. Pp. 441-447. Muller, E.F., U. Nieschalk & B. Meier (1985): Thermoregulation in the slender loris ( Loris tardigradus). Folia Primatologica 44: 216-226. Nekaris, K.A. (2000): The socioecology of the Mysore slender loris ( Loris tardigradus lydekkerianus ) in Dindigul, Tamil Nadu, South India. Ph.D. thesis, Washington University. Petter, J.J. & C.M. Hladik (1970): Observations on the home range and population density of Loris 406 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC 2002 ACTIVITY SCHEDULE AND HABITAT USE OF SLENDER LORIS tardigradus in the forests of Ceylon. Mammalia 34: 394-409. Phillips, W.W.A. (1931): The food of the Ceylon slender loris {Loris tardigradus) in captivity. Spolia Zeylanica 16: 205-208. Radhakrishna, S. (2001): Reproductive and social behaviour of the slender loris ( Loris tardigradus lydekkerianus) in its natural habitat. Ph.D. thesis, University of Mysore. Ramakrishna, P.A. & M.R.N. Prasad (1962): Reproduction in the male slender loris, Loris tardigradus lydekkerianus (Cabrera). Curr. Sci. 11: 468-469. Ramakrishna, P.A. & M.R.N. Prasad (1967): Changes in the male reproductive organs of Loris tardigradus lydekkerianus (Cabrera). Folia Primatologica 5: 176-189. Ramaswami, L.S. & T.C.A. Kumar (1962): Reproductive cycle of the slender loris. Naturwissenschaften 49: 115-116. Ramaswami, L.A. & T.C.A. Kumar (1965): Some aspects of reproduction of the female slender loris, Loris tardigradus lydekkerianus (Cabrera). Acta Zoologica 46: 257-273. Rao, C.R.N. ( 1 927): On the structure of the ovary and the ovarian ovum of Loris lydekkerianus , Cabrera. Quart. J. Mic. Sc. 7 1:51-1 4. Rasmussen, D.T. (1986): Life history and behaviour of slow and slender lorises: Implications for the lorisine- galagine divergence. Ph.D. thesis, Duke University. Rasmussen, D.T. & K.A.I. Nekaris (1998): Evolutionary history of the lorisiform primates. Folia Primatologica 69: 250-285. Roonwal, M.L. & S.M. Mohnot (1977): Primates of South Asia: Ecology, Sociobiology and Behaviour. London, Harvard University Press. Sarma, R. & M. Kadam (1984): Study of germ-cell morphology and the spermatogenic cycle in the slender loris, Loris tardigradus lydekkerianus (Cabrera). In: Current Primate Researches (Eds.: Roonwal, M.L., S.M. Mohnot & N.S. Rathore). University of Jodhpur Press, Jodhpur. Pp. 167-175. Schulze, H. & B. Meier (1995): Behaviour of captive Loris tardigradus nordicus: a qualitative description, including some information about morphological bases of behaviour. In: Creatures of the Dark: The Nocturnal Prosimians (Eds.: Alterman, L., G.A. Doyle & M.K. Izard). New York, Plenum, pp. 221 - 250. Singh, M., D.G. Lindburg, A. Udhayan, M.A. Kumar & H.N. Kumara ( 1 999): Status survey of slender loris Loris tardigradus lydekkerianus in Dindigul, Tamil Nadu, India. Oryx 33: 31-37. Still, J. (1905): On the loris in captivity. Spolia Zeylanica 3: 155-157. Subramoniam, S. ( 1 957): Some observations on the habits of the slender loris, Loris tardigradus (Linnaeus). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 54: 387-398. Swayamprabha, M.S. (1983): Studies on the physiological and biochemical relations between the ovary and the reproductive tract in the female slender loris Loris tardigradus lydekkerianus. Ph.D. Thesis, Bangalore University. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002 407 PLANT SELECTION FOR NESTING BY OECOPHYLLA SMARAGDINA , HYMENOPTERA: FORMICIDAE: DO PHYSICAL FEATURES AFFECT THE CHOICE OF THE PLANT?1 N. SUMITHRAMMA, A.R.V. KUMAR, K. CHANDRASHEKARA AND D. RAJAGOPAL2 Key words: Oecophylla smaragdina, weaver ant, nesting habits, plant physical features, Homoptera The weaver ant, Oecophylla smaragdina Fabricius is the only species of ant in the Old World to build nests on plants by tying leaves together with silk secreted by the larvae. Although the ant is widespread in its distribution in southern India, it was not found to nest uniformly across its range of distribution. One possible reason for such a variation could be the lack of suitable plants for nesting. Investigations, therefore, were made on the suitability of plants, on the basis of selected physical parameters, to check their influence on the choice of plants for nesting by O. smaragdina. A total of 498 plants belonging to 51 species were examined for the occurrence of nests of O. smaragdina in and around the GKVK campus of the University of Agricultural Sciences, Bangalore. A total of 124 nests were located on 19.61% of the species of plants examined, indicating that the ants do not nest on all species of plants. Fourteen physical characters (of leaf or twig) measured either as qualitative or quantitative data, were not found to influence the nesting pattern of the weaver ant. Therefore, the observed variation in nesting pattern may be attributed to other non-physical factors of the plants. The chemistry of the plants or the micro- habitat, i.e. the location of the plant, may influence the nesting pattern of O. smaragdina. Introduction The weaver ant, Oecophylla smaragdina F. is the only member of the tribe Oecophyllini (Formicidae: Formicinae) found in the Old World and is widely distributed in perennial cropping systems throughout southern India. It is considered a nuisance and a pest of many cultivated crops, as it harbours noxious homopterans such as coffee green scales (Hill 1983) for honeydew. On the other hand, its use as a biocontrol agent in several cropping systems is widely appreciated (Way and Khoo 1992). Elsewhere, it is considered a dominant ant, which can influence the structure of the ant mosaic (Majer 1993) and the diversity of many other arthropods, because it is a carnivore. Though similar evaluations are lacking in India, it is 'Accepted April, 2000 department of Entomology, University of Agricultural Sciences, GKVK, Bangalore 560 065, Karnataka, India. undoubtedly a dominant species in many cultivated and natural perennial systems, particularly along the Western Ghats. The ant builds the nest by tying leaves with silken threads produced by the ant’s own larvae. Some worker ants form a chain to connect the leaves of the plant and then pull them together, so that the margins of the leaves overlap. Other workers bring the advanced stage larvae close to the overlapping edges and move them criss-cross across the edge to seal it. Nest construction using leaves appears to be a continuous process, as nests of all sizes can be found on different parts of the plant (Holldobler and Wilson 1990). The nest is expanded by joining more leaves to increase its volume, which also results in the formation of different enclosures within the nest. Although the ant is known to build nests on a wide variety of plants, the plant factors that influence the ant’s colonisation pattern have been little studied. It is believed that the ant prefers evergreen, broad- leaved plants to construct nests (Bingham 1903). 408 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002 PLANT SELECTION FOR NESTING BY OECOPHYLLA SMARAGDINA However, the congeneric O. longinoda is known to prefer many cultivated plants for nesting. The order of preference shows a strong preference for mango over other cultivated species tested by Djieto-Lordon and Dejean (1999), who did not investigate the characteristics of plant or leaves in relation to the nesting preference of the species. The choice of a plant for nesting is likely to be influenced by both the physical and chemical features of the plant. In this study, we tested some physical features of the plant for their possible role in influencing the nest plant selection by of O. smaragdina. Material and Methods A total of 498 plants belonging to 51 species in 24 families were examined for nests of Oecophylla smaragdina in and around GKVK campus, University of Agricultural Sciences, Bangalore (Table 1). Fourteen physical characteristics of the plants were recorded, in qualitative or quantitative measures. The occurrence of O. smaragdina on 51 species of plants measured qualitatively (presence/absence) was checked for association with eight of the fourteen qualitative measures of plants. These included type of plant (shrub/tree), presence/ absence of thorns, arrangement of leaves, shape of leaf, texture of leaf, simplicity of leaf, petiolate/ sessile leaves and smoothness of leaf margin. The characters measured quantitatively were number of leaflets, internodal length, number of twigs per metre, size of leaf (length, breadth, area). The quantitative measures, grouped into 5-7 classes and the corresponding number of plant species with O. smaragdina nests were tabulated. The occurrence of Homoptera colonies on the plants was also recorded. The qualitative characters were tested for association using 2x2 contingency Chi-square. Quantitative characters were divided into 5, 6, or 7 classes, considering the range. Proportional occurrence of plants with and without the nests in each size class was noted. Using the cumulative values of proportional occurrence of plant species in the two categories x2 of K-S test (Kolmogorov-Smirnov test, Siegel 1956) for two large samples was then computed to ascertain whether the two distributions differed. Lack of difference would suggest that plants with nests are distributed in all size classes of the character considered and match the natural distribution of the characters in the community. For all these tests, any species with at least one nest, irrespective of the number of plants surveyed, was taken as a plant with nests. Results Occurrence of O. smaragdina on plants: In all, 124 nests of O. smaragdina were located on 34 plants belonging to 10 species spread over 6 families (Table 2). This amounted to 6.83% of plants, 19.61% of species and 25% of families of plants surveyed, indicating that these ants do not nest uniformly on all plant species. Mango, pongamia, tabebuia, cocoa, syzigium, coffee and four unidentified plants were found to harbour ant nests and the percentage plants with nests followed the same order. Physical features of the Plant: Among the plants observed, 24 species were shrubs and 6 of them harboured nests. Similarly, 27 species were trees and 4 harboured weaver ants. All the ten species of plants with nests were found to be thornless. Five of the plants with nests had opposite leaves while the remaining had alternate leaves. The ants were observed to nest on plants with both simple and compound, petiolate leaves, but only two were in the latter category. Six of the plants with nests had elongate leaves, while four had oval leaves. All these ten plants had smooth leaf margin and only one had leaves with a rough surface. The details of qualitative characters and plants exhibiting them are included in Table 3. All the ten plants with nests were found within the range of five leaflets per JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002 409 PLANT SELECTION FOR NESTING BY OECOPHYLLA SMARAGDINA Table 1 : Plant species screened for the occurrence of Oecophylla smaragdina in and around GKVK, Bangalore SI. No. Name Common name Family No. of plants examined No. of trees with nests Total No. of nests % plants with nests Mean No. of nests\tree 1 Tabebuia argentea Tabebuia Bignoniaceae 23 7 9 30.43 0.39 2 Cocos nucifera Coconut Palmaceae 66 0 0 0 0 3 Leucaena leucocephala Subabul Fabaceae 123 0 0 0 0 4 Pongamia glabra Pongamia Fabaceae 24 8 50 33.43 2.08 5 Psidium guajava Guava Myrtaceae 2 0 0 0 0 6 Coffea robusta Coffee Rubiaceae 16 1 3 6.25 0.18 7 Theobroma cacao Cocoa Sterculiaceae 5 1 2 20.00 0.40 8 Elaterium cardamomum Cardamom Zingiberaceae 12 0 0 0 0 9 Erythrina indica Erythrina Fabaceae 14 0 0 0 0 10 Mangifera indica Mango Anacardiaceae 16 8 30 50.00 1.87 11 Gliricidia maculata Gliricidia Fabaceae 9 0 0 0 0 12 Grevillea robusta Silver oak Proteaceae 4 0 0 0 0 13 Ficus bengalensis Ficus Moraceae 3 0 0 0 0 14 Syzygium cumini Jamun Myrtaceae 17 3 12 17.64 0.70 15 Santalum album Sandal Santalaceae 3 0 0 0 0 16 Anacardium occidentale Cashew Anacardiaceae 7 0 0 0 0 17 Eucalyptus hybrida Eucalyptus Myrtaceae 5 0 0 0 0 18 Brassaia actinophylla Umbrella tree Araliaceae 2 0 0 0 0 19 Agave sp. Agave Agavaceae 1 0 0 0 0 20 Bambusa arundinacea Bamboo Graminae 12 0 0 0 0 21 Roystonea regia Bottle palm Arecaceae 19 0 0 0 0 22 Araucaria columnaria Christmas tree Pinaceae 2 0 0 0 0 23 Thuja occidentalis Thuja Cupressaceae 5 0 0 0 0 24 Pinus sp. Pine Pinaceae 2 0 0 0 0 25 Tamarindus indica Tamarind Fabaceae 2 0 0 0 0 26 Albizia sp. Albizia Mimosaceae 4 0 0 0 0 27 Anona squamosa Custard apple Annonaceae 1 0 0 0 0 28 Bauhinia purpurea Bauhinia Caesalpiniaceae 2 0 0 0 0 29 Azadirachta indica Neem Meliaceae 8 0 0 0 0 30 Averrhoa carambola Carambola Averrhoaceae 1 0 0 0 0 31 Ailanthus excelsa Match wood tree Simaroubaceae 2 0 0 0 0 32 Plumeria alba Temple tree Apocynaceae 1 0 0 0 0 33 Tectona grandis Teak Verbenaceae 3 0 0 0 0 34 Unidentified spl 1 0 0 0 0 35 Unidentified sp2 7 1 3 14.28 0.42 36 Unidentified sp3 1 0 0 0 0 37 Unidentified sp4 1 0 0 0 0 38 Unidentified sp5 7 1 1 14.28 0.14 39 Unidentified sp6 18 3 8 16.66 0.44 40 Unidentified sp7 4 0 0 0 0 41 Unidentified sp8 1 0 0 0 0 42 Unidentified sp9 1 0 0 0 0 43 Unidentified splO 7 0 0 0 0 44 Unidentified spll 2 0 0 0 0 45 Unidentified spl 2 2 0 0 0 0 46 Unidentified spl 3 1 0 0 0 0 47 Unidentified spl4 1 1 6 100.0 1.00 48 Unidentified spl 5 11 0 0 0 0 49 Unidentified spl 6 1 0 0 0 0 50 Unidentified spl 7 2 0 0 0 0 51 Unidentified spl 8 12 0 0 0 0 410 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002 PLANT SELECTION FOR NESTING BY OECOPHYLLA SMARAGDINA Table 2. Occurrence of Oecophylla smaragdina nests on plants Oecophylla Nests Present Percent Absent Percent Total No. of plants 34 6.83 464 93.17 498 No. of species 10 19.61 41 80.39 51.00 No. of families 6 25.00 18 75.00 24 Table 3: Association between qualitative characters of plants and nesting by Oecophylla smaragdina at GKVK Campus Plant character Plant Plant Chi- Significance with without square P<0.05 nest nest Type of plant Shrub 6 18 0.314 NS Tree Thorns 4 23 Present 0 4 0.139 NS Absent 10 37 Arrangement of leaves Opposite 5 18 0.00005 NS Alternate Type of leaves 5 23 Simple 8 24 0.799 NS Compound Petiolated 2 17 condition Petiolate 10 31 0.574 NS Sessile 0 10 Shape of leaves Elongate 6 25 0.092 NS Oval Texture of leaves 4 16 Smooth 9 25 0.968 NS Rough Leaf margin 1 13 Smooth 10 34 0.044 NS Rough 0 7 leaf and 37 species of plants without nests had the leaflet numbers in this range. The intemodal lengths varied from <1 to 19 cm among the studied plants. These were divided into 6 different classes and all of them were represented among the plants with ants. Number of twigs per metre of the stem ranged up to 60 and was divided into five classes, which were all represented by the plants with nests. Leaf or leaflet length varied from 0.5 to 46.83 cm and the plants could be divided into 7 different classes and all of the categories were represented by plants with ant nests. Similarly, leaf breadth and the leaf area showed considerable variation among the plants checked for ant nests. The plants could be divided into five and six classes with respect to breadth and area respectively. Ants were found on plants of ail categories. A summary of these quantitative characters is provided in Table 4. Nest occurrence and plant characters: The distribution of the fourteen characters among the plants with nests matched the natural distributions of these characters among the 51 species of plants surveyed (Chi-square: 0.5xl04to 2.62; p>0.05 for all the characters). Clearly, the tests indicated that the physical features of the plants considered were not influencing the choice of nesting by the weaver ants (Table 3 & 4). Table 4: Association between quantitative characters of plants and preference for nesting by Oecophylla smaragdina at GKVK Campus Character Range Mean Chi- Square Probability <0.05 No. of leaflets/ leaf 3-208 105.50 2.62 NS Intemodal length 0.2-19 cm 9.60 1.47 NS No. of twigs/m 1-60 30.50 0.55 NS Leaf length 0.5-46.83 cm 23.66 0.48 NS Leafbreadth 0.3-17.5 cm 8.90 0.48 NS Leaf area 0.33-342.2 171.30 0.56 NS sq. cm Ants and Homoptera on plants: Colonies of homopterans were found on 29 species of plants. All the plants with ant nests were found to harbour Homoptera, including aphids, scales, mealy bugs and tree-hoppers. The ants were observed to tend only scales and mealy bugs. The association test indicated that ant occurrence is strongly dependent upon the availability of homopteran colonies on the plants (Chi-square: 6.01; p<0.01). JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002 411 PLANT SELECTION FOR NESTING BY OECOPHYLLA SMARAGDINA Discussion There has been no evaluation of the role of physical characters of plant in the nesting preference of O. smaragdina. The present study shows that physical parameters of the plants considered do not influence the choice of nest plant. Earlier observations indicated that weaver ants nest exclusively on broad-leaved evergreen plants (Bingham 1903). However, in the present study, the ants were recorded on deciduous plants such as Pongamia and on other species which have very small leaflets e.g., Albizia sp. Although the study considered only two types of plants i.e. shrubs and trees, it is likely that vines may also be colonised. This study showed that the ants have no preference for plants with specific physical characteristics for nesting. Reasons for the absence of nests on most of the plants species screened could not be established in this study. The occurrence of O. smaragdina on plant species may be governed by factors other than their physical features. For example, the nesting efficiency may be influenced by the amount of silk the larva needed to produce to bind the leaves together, as smaller leaves require greater quantities of silk and energy, at the cost of the development of the colony. Yet, such characters were not found to influence the nesting pattern. Clearly, the cost of such nest building may be offset by other benefits that the ant may get from plants with small leaves. This is evident from the strong association observed Refer Bingham, C.T. (1903): Hymenoptera-II: The fauna of British India including Ceylon and Burma. Taylor and Francis, London, pp. 506. Djieto-Lordon, C. & A. Dejean (1999): Tropical arboreal ant mosaics: innate attraction and imprinting determine nest site selection in dominant ants. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 45: 219-225. Hill, D.S. (1983): Agricultural pests of tropics and their control. Cambridge University Press. Pp. 516. Holldobler, B. & E.O. Wilson (1990): The Ants. Springer- Verlag, London. Pp. 732. between the ant nests and the Homopteran colonies among the plants screened. If physical parameters of the plants are not influencing the nest building on plants, then what other factors govern the O. smaragdina nest distribution on plant species? There is some indirect evidence to support the possibility of nest construction by O. longinoda being influenced by prior experience of the larvae with the plants (Djieto-Lordon and Dejean 1999). The experience of nesting on a plant could be imprinted in the larvae by chemical signals. Therefore, it is likely that the chemical features of the plants play the most important role in selection for nesting by O. smaragdina. But not all plants were uniformly inhabited even among the preferred plants, which suggests other factors like the micro-habitat of the plant as one possible reason to affect the nesting. However, the occurrence of ant nests was strongly associated with the occurrence of Homoptera, particularly scale insects. This suggests that the host plants of these scales may be the most important hosts of the weaver ants. But O. smaragdina being a predatory ant, such a strong association between the Homoptera and the ants is surprising. It is possible that the honeydew of the Homoptera is essential for the survival and multiplication of the ants. These aspects of the biology of O. smaragdina may be of help in managing them, either in biological control or to reduce their impact as pests of economic importance. E N C E S Majer, J.C. (1993): Comparison ofthe arboreal ant mosaic in Ghana, Brazil, Papua New Guinea and Australia — its structure and influence on ant diversity. In: Hymenoptera and Biodiversity (Eds.: LaSalle, J. & L.D. Gauld). CAB International, London, pp. 115- 141. Siegel, S. (1956): Nonparametric statistics for the behavioural sciences. McGraw-Hill, New York, pp. 312. Way, M.J. & K.C. Khqo (1992): Role of ants in pest management. Ann. Rev. Ent. 37: 479-503. 412 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002 STATUS OF BENGAL FLORICAN HOUBAROPSIS BENGALENSIS IN ROYAL BARDIA NATIONAL PARK, NEPAL1 ( With two text-figures) Nabin Baral, Bijay Tamang and Nilesh Timilsina2 Key words: Houbaropsis bengalensis, status, grassland management, population decline, Bardia, Nepal A survey for the endangered Bengal florican (Houbaropsis bengalensis ) was carried out in Aprii- May 2000 in some grassland sites of the Royal Bardia National Park, Nepal. A total of 5 floricans (3 males and 2 females) were counted in 1 1 days. All the males had distinct territories. Though limited suitable florican habitat was available, the population seemed to be declining. To provide additional habitat for floricans, proper maintenance of grasslands in areas other than Bagaura and Lamkauli has been recommended. Introduction Bengal florican ( Houbaropsis bengalensis ), one of the three bustard species endemic to the Indian subcontinent, has undergone an alarming decline throughout its former range, as its grassland habitat has been lost to cultivation, afforestation or degraded by overgrazing (Rahmani et al. 1991). Its past distribution ranged from southern Uttaranchal (earlier northwestern Uttar Pradesh) to Upper Assam, through the Nepal terai, Bengal duars and Brahmaputra Valley (Ali and Ripley 1969, Rahmani et al. 1991). The known population of less than 300-400 individuals is at serious risk from further habitat loss, warranting its inclusion in the IUCN list of endangered species. In Nepal, a preliminary study initiated by ICBP (now BirdLife International), in 1982, located 35-50 floricans distributed in five sites: Royal Chitwan National Park (RCNP), Royal Bardia National Park (RBNP), Royal Suklaphanta Wildlife Reserve (RSWR), Koshi Taapu Wildlife Reserve (KTWR) and an unprotected area near the Koshi barrage in east Nepal (Inskipp and Inskipp 1983). The Koshi barrage site appears to have lost its small 'Accepted August, 2001 2P.O. Box 907, Kathmandu, Nepal. population after 1980, following a change in the course of the Koshi river. There has been no record from KTWR since 1990. The rapid population growth and urbanization in the Nepal terai has resulted in all unprotected grasslands being converted to cultivated land, with grasslands now existing only inside protected areas. Records from the past two decades indicate a decline in the population of the Bengal florican. Hunting does not seem to be the cause, since the species is well-protected, and punishment for poaching is severe. Decrease in the extent of grasslands and the improper management of some could be major causes for its decline. This paper aims to present the current information on the status and distribution of the Bengal florican in the Royal Bardia National Park. Study Area The Royal Bardia National Park (28° 38’ N and 81° 20' E) is located c. 450 km southwest of Kathmandu in southwestern Nepal, and occupies an area of 968 sq. km. It has a sub- tropical climate, with three seasons: the hot-dry from mid February to mid June, monsoon from mid June to late September and cool-dry from late September to mid February (Dinerstein JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002 413 STATUS OF BENGAL FLORJCAN IN ROYAL BARDIA NATIONAL PARK 1 979a). About 80-90% of the total annual rainfall occurs during the four months period from June to September. The average annual rainfall of the Park is 2,168 mm. The Park holds a great variety of flora and fauna. Some 32 large mammals (Dinerstein 1979b) and 235 bird species (Inskipp 1983) have been recorded. The vegetation of the Park was classified into six major types by Dinerstein (1979a), and modified by Jnawali and Wegge ( 1 993) to seven major types. The vegetation types are Shorea robust a forest, Acacia-Dalbergia forest, woody grasslands, floodplain grassland and phantas. Phantas are previously cultivated fields, which have been restored to open grasslands after being included in the Park. The three phantas: Lamkauli, Bagaura and Khauraha were the main areas under study (Fig 1). These phantas are dominated by Imperata cylindrica, Saccharum spontaneum and Narenga porphorycoma. The Khauraha phanta has lost its open grasslands to succession by invading trees and bushes. Some grassy patches inside and outside the Park were also studied. Methodology Known florican habitats were visited during the breeding season (April-May), when the territorial males are easily seen during their aerial display. As Bengal floricans are most active in the early mornings and evenings (Ali and Ripley 1969), observations were carried out mainly in the early mornings (0630-1000 hrs) and late afternoon (1630-1900 hrs). Floricans are territorial during the breeding season when each individual male defends a patch of grassland (Ali and Rahmani 1982-84, Sankaran and Rahmani 1 986), so the number of territories or display sites in an area indicates the population of adult male floricans. As hens are not easy to locate, the population estimates are based on the assumption 414 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002 STATUS OF BENGAL FLORICAN IN ROYAL BARDIA NATIONAL PARK of equal sex ratio. Observations were made using binoculars from machans for a better view of the grasslands. Some areas were also covered on elephant back. The number of floricans seen, their sexes, activity, time, weather and time spent in each area were noted. Notes were taken on the general condition of the grasslands and disturbances. Group discussions were held with the Park officials, game scouts and local people to gather information on the presence and conservation related issues of the Bengal florican. Results The present study recorded five floricans (3 males and 2 females). Two males and two females were recorded in Lamkauli phanta and one male was recorded in Bagaura phanta. Sub- adults, eggs and chicks were not recorded (Table 1). All the male floricans observed were occupying short grass patches, whereas the females observed in Lamkauli occupied the tall grass area by the side of the motorable road. Because the grass was short and the visibility good, the study assumes that all the floricans present were recorded. There was no overlapping of territories between the males. All the male birds observed on the ground were also seen in flight, but the females were never seen flying. Earlier studies suggested the presence of Bengal florican in Khauraha phanta (pers. comm., Park staff), but this survey was unable Table 1: Bengal florican recorded in Royal Bardia National Park, 2000 Site Days No. of Male Female Sub-adult spent visits Lamkauli 4 7 2 2 Bagaura 3 6 1 - Khauraha 3 6 - - Other places 2 3 - - Total 11 22 3 2 to record any. Successive changes have resulted in encroachment of grasslands by trees, bushes and tall grass species and this might have made the Khauraha habitat unsuitable for the floricans. Most of the small grass patches and probable florican habitats inside and outside the Park were surveyed, but no florican was seen. The habitat in Bagaura and Lamkauli phanta seemed to be ideal for the florican. Imperata cylindrica among the short and Saccharum sp. among the tall grass species dominated both the phantas. Male floricans preferred the Imperata patch and females the Saccharum patch. Grass height ranged from 17- 110 cm, and it provided sufficient cover and shelter. Khauraha could be an ideal habitat for Bengal florican, but needs rigorous management. Inskipp (1983) reported 9-10 floricans (8- 9 males and 1 female) in Bardia and Weaver (1991) reported 6 birds (5 males and 1 female). The current population of 3 males and 2 females when compared to the earlier records shows a decline in population. Discussion In most studies conducted in Bardia, sub- adult floricans were not sighted. This may indicate some recruitment problem, either due to poor breeding or low survival rate of young; the availability of suitable habitat could be one of the main problems. The population of florican has declined over the past two decades, so it is important to address the problems related to grassland habitat to increase their population. We do not know the viable population size for long-term survival, but maintaining a healthy population in all the present habitats is crucial for the conservation of the species. Grassland management is necessary to maintain the florican habitat. In Bardia, grasslands undergo annual controlled burning JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002 415 STATUS OF BENGAL FLOR1CAN IN ROYAL BARDIA NATIONAL PARK T N (Not to scale) Fig. 2: Map of Bagaura and Lamkauli phanta showing distribution of Bengal florican in January and February. In December, the local villagers are allowed to enter the protected areas and cut grass for thatch. Normally, January and February seems to be the correct time for the burning of grass in Bardia, but the record of a displaying male (Inskipp and Inskipp 1983) in December suggests that the breeding season should be avoided while burning or harvesting. If burning is carried out during the breeding season, it could destroy eggs or young birds. Ideally, burning should be done in small patches before the breeding season. All the patches should not be burned every year. Extensive dry season burning should be strictly avoided. There was no hunting pressure as the species is listed and hunting is strictly prohibited. Grasslands near the Park and near human settlements were overgrazed, and also suffered from anthropogenic pressures. The space needed for territory formation of a large population of floricans is currently lacking in Bardia. Recommendations 1. Steps should be taken to prevent invasion by tree saplings. Burning and harvesting in grasslands should be strictly regulated. 2. Locals should be made aware of the different aspects of florican and grassland conservation. 416 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY 99(3), DEC 2002 STATUS OF BENGAL FLO RICAN IN ROYAL BARDIA NATIONAL PARK 3. Very little is known about the ecology of the Bengal florican outside its breeding season. Radiotelemetry should be used to study the movement of floricans outside the breeding season. 4. Healthy populations of wild ungulates, to some extent, help in maintaining grassland habitat. Interaction of Bengal florican with other grassland species could be studied, and the conservation strategy should protect all the grassland species originally found in the area. 5. Florican population in all prime habitats should be monitored annually. Refer Ali, S. & A.R. Rahmani (1982-84): Study of ecology of certain endangered species of wildlife and their habitats: The Great Indian Bustard. Annual report 2, Bombay Natural History Society. Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1969): Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan. Vol. 2, Oxford University Press, Bombay. Dinerstein, E. ( 1 979a): An ecological survey of the Royal Kamali-Bardia Wildlife Reserve, Nepal, Part 1: Vegetation, modifying factors and successional relationship. Biol Conserv. 15: 127-150. Dinerstein, E. ( 1 979b): An ecological survey of the Royal Kamali-Bardia Wildlife Reserve Nepal, Part II: Habitat/animal interaction. Biol. Conserv. 16: 265- 300. Inskipp, C. (1983): Checklist of birds of Royal Bardia Wildlife Reserve. International Center for Bird Preservation, Cambridge. Pp. 6. Inskipp, C. & T. Inskipp (1983): Report on a Survey of Bengal Floricans ( Houbaropsis bengalensis) in Nepal and India, 1982. ICBP Study Report No. 2. Acknowledgements This study was funded by the WWF-Nepal Program. We are indebted to A.R. Rahmani and Carol Inskipp for valuable guidance and reference material. We thank DNPWC and staffs of RBNP for help and permission for this work. We are grateful to Dr. S.R. Jnawali and Mrs. Sarita Jnawali, and Mr. Mohan Chaudhary, proprietor of the Hotel Bardia Natural Park. We are indebted to Mr. Hem Sagar Baral for encouragement and support NCES Pp. 54. Jnawali, S.R. & P. Wegge (1993): Space and habitat use by a small, reintroduced population of one-horned rhinoceros {Rhinoceros unicornis) in Royal Bardia National Park in Nepal — A preliminary report. In: Proceedings of the International Conference on Rhinoceros Biology and Conservation (Ed.: Ryder, O.A.). Zool. Soc., San Diego, USA. 208-2 1 7 pp. Rahmani, A.R., G. Narayan, L. Rosalind, R. Sankaran & U. Ganguli (1991): Status of the Bengal Florican Houbaropsis bengalensis in India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 88 (3): 349-375. Sankaran, R. & A.R. Rahmani (1986): Study of the ecology of certain species of wildlife and their habitats: The Lesser Florican. Annual Report 2, Bombay Natural History Society. 41 pp. Weaver, D.J. (1991): A Survey of Bengal floricans {Houbaropsis bengalensis) at Royal Suklaphanta Wildlife Reserve and Royal Bardia National Park, Western Nepal, 1990. A report to OBC, UK. Pp. 15. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY 99(3), DEC. 2002 417 ABUNDANCE AND DIVERSITY OF MOSS COMMUNITIES OF CHOPTA-TUNGANATH IN THE GARHWAL HIMALAYA1 ( With seven text-figures) Hans Raj Negi 2 Key words: Alpha-diversity, beta-diversity, macrohabitats, microhabitats, moss, taxon rank surrogacy, Tunganath, Garhwal Himalaya A total of 8, 1 55 colonies of moss from 1 2 plots of 50 m x 1 0 m, from four vegetation (macrohabitat) types along gradients of disturbance and elevation (1,400-3,700 m) in the Chopta-Tunganath landscape of the Garhwal Himalaya, yielded 34 families with 87 genera and 1 77 species. Thuidium cymbifolium, Entodon rubicundus, and Racomitrium subsecundum were wide-niche species, occupying all the three major substrates (microhabitats), namely rock, soil and wood, whereas Tetraplodon mnioides and Timmia megapolitana were rare, encountered only once during the survey. Macrohabitats and microhabitats were compared with respect to alpha- and beta-diversity of the moss flora. Amongst the macrohabitats, the high altitude (2,900-3,200 m) Rhododendron forest had the richest moss communities followed by the middle altitude (2,500-2,800 m) Quercus forest, higher altitude grasslands (3,300-3,700 m) and then the lower elevation (1,500 m) Quercus forest. Amongst the microhabitats, soil was richer than wood and rock substrates. Species, genus and family level, alpha- as well as beta-diversities were significantly correlated with each other, implying that the higher taxonomic ranks such as genera may be used as surrogates of species for effective periodic monitoring and assessment of moss biodiversity. While unregulated human activities such as excessive fuel wood collection, tourism and fire may adversely affect the diversity of moss, seasonally regulated livestock grazing seems to have no marked impact. Introduction While there has been an appreciable progress in the taxonomic listing and descriptions of species of moss communities during the last three decades (Gangulee 1969-72, Chopra 1975, Kumar and Chopra 1981), the research on their community ecology, quantifying patterns of abundance, diversity and its conservation has only recently begun (Negi andGadgil 1997, Negi 1999, Negi 2000). Notably enough, much of the past work on biodiversity patterns and processes have been descriptive and concentrated at the regional ‘Accepted June, 2001 2Biodiversity Laboratory, Evolutionary and Organismal Biology Unit Jawaharlal Nehru Centre for Advanced Scientific Research Jakkur Campus, Jakkur P.O., Bangalore 560 064, Karnataka, India. Present Address: Biodiversity Division, Institute of Himalayan Bioresource Technology (Council of Scientific & Industrial Research), Post Box No. 6, Palampur 1 76 06 1 , Himachal Pradesh, India. and global scales (Heywood 1995, Gaston 1996). This paper attempts to present the local scale patterns, particularly abundance, and alpha and beta diversities in moss communities across the gradients of macrohabitats (vegetation types) and disturbance along the altitude, in a landscape of about 500 sq. km, of Chopta-Tunganath in Garhwal Himalaya. Emphasis is given on understanding the local scale patterns, because land-use decisions and management policies are most often implemented only at this level (Ricklefs and Schluter 1993, Negi 1999). The study further examines the efficacy of using higher taxon ranks such as genera as reliable surrogates of species for effective periodic monitoring of the moss diversity. Conservation implications are also discussed. Study Area Chopta-Tunganath (30° 20' - 30° 35* N and 79° 10-79° 20' E; 1,400 m-3,700 m) is a mountainous landscape spreading over 500 sq. km 418 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002 ABUNDANCE AND DIVERSITY OF MOSS COMMUNITIES OF CHOPTA-TUNGANA TH INVESTIGATED SITES: ALT ITUDE(rn) 1. BANJAN1 : 1.400 2. BANJANI : 1.500 3. dugalbetta : 2.500 4. BANYAKUND : 2.600 5. CHOPTA : 2.700 6. CHOPTA : 2.800 7. CHOPTA : 2.900 8. CHOPTA : 3.000 9. BUJGWALI : 3.100 10. DEVDEKHANI : 3.200 11. TUNGANATH : 3.400 12. CHANDRASHILA : 3.600 13. CHANDRASHILA : 3.700 * 1 l “1 — 4 k — 12 • „• »• «• • 7 *• 5* 3* 2* 79°20'E 30o35'N 30°20'N SCALE-]: 5,60,000 INVESTIGATED SITES L— L_L. L— JL 0 I 33.6 km Fig. 1: Location of Chopta-Tunganath landscape in the Indian Garhwal Himalaya (Fig. 1). The undulating topography of the area provides a variety of edaphic conditions, resulting in a distinctive flora and fauna (Gupta 1964). The soil is coarse, well drained and acidic, at pH 4 - 5.5 (Sundriyal 1992). There is no detailed analysis of rainfall variation at different sites along the gradient. The average annual precipitation at Okhimath station (30° 30* N; 79° 15* E; 2,500 m), about 10 km west of Chopta, was 1,888.5 ±98. 5mm for the last 50 years, with low to heavy snow fall from December to March. The maximum monthly temperature varies between 19-37 °C, from the higher altitude JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002 419 ABUNDANCE AND DIVERSITY OF MOSS COMMUNITIES OF CHOPTA-TUNGANATH grasslands to the lower elevation Quercus forests, respectively, from May to October. The minimum temperature drops to -15 °C in the alpine grasslands in December up to February. The vegetation of the study area is broadly classified as temperate mixed oak and coniferous forests, sub-alpine forest, alpine scrub and grasslands. The area harbors more than 250 vascular plant species (Semwal and Gaur 1981) and 92 species of lichens (Upreti andNegi 1998) besides a rich diversity of fauna including the highly endangered musk deer ( Moschus chrysogaster ) (Negi 1996). The low elevation woodlands such as Quercus forests are open to fodder and fuel wood collection throughout the year. In the sub-alpine forests and alpine meadows, livestock grazing and tourism starts in early June, reaching a peak in July-August and stopping in early October. Methods Field Sampling Design: The landscape was stratified into five macrohabitat types, based on the predominant vegetation cover along the gradient 1) Paddy fields; (<1,400 m). 2) Lower altitude (1 ,500 m) broad-leafed forest; dominated by Quercus leucotrichophora. This forest has been protected, from felling by locals, for more than 25 years. 3) Middle altitude (2,500-2,800 m) broad-leafed forest; dominated by Quercus semecarpifolia. 4) High altitude (2,900-3,200 m) mixed forests with dominant broad-leafed species e.g. Rhododendron arboreum and Rhododendron campanulatum , dotted with a few coniferous trees of Abies pindrow and Taxus buccata. 5) Higher altitude (3,400-3,700 m) grasslands dominated by herbaceous species, e.g. Anemone , Potentilla, Aster , Geranium , Meconopsis, Primula and Polemonium, and pockets of shrubs of Rhododendron anthopogon and Juniperus sp. All the macrohabitat types were exposed to varied degrees of human interference such as rice cultivation in the low land terraces, fuel wood collection from woodland, and seasonal livestock grazing and tourism in the alpine meadows. Data Recording: 12 plots of 50 m x 10 m, were laid between 1 ,500 m to 3,700 m above msl, Table 1 : Attributes of 12 plots (50x10 sq. m) sampled for mosses and woody plants in Chopta-Tunganath Mosses Woody plants Plot No. Site name Altitude (x 100 m) MAC type Colonies Species Genera Families Individuals Species 1 Banjani 15 LQ 508 29 21 14 58 3 2 Dugalbetta 25 MQ 540 31 27 18 7 3 3 Banyakund 26 MQ 1126 47 37 21 9 6 4 Chopta 27 MQ 368 43 33 18 10 3 5 Chopta 28 MQ 330 29 24 16 17 2 6 Chopta 29 HR 732 52 36 20 10 3 7 Chopta 30 HR 681 56 38 19 53 9 8 Bujgwali 31 HR 604 63 41 24 24 9 9 Devdekhani 32 HR 835 29 25 13 16 3 10 Tunganath 34 HG 890 29 24 19 0 0 11 Chandrashila 36 HG 990 26 24 16 19 4 12 Chandrashila 37 HG 551 36 32 18 12 2 MAC = Macrohabitat, LQ = Lower altitude Quercus forest, MQ = Middle altitude Quercus forest, HR = High altitude mixed forest of Rhododendron, HG = Higher altitude grassland 420 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC 2002 ABUNDANCE AND DIVERSITY OF MOSS COMMUNITIES OF CHOPTA-TUNGANATH covering four types of macrohabitat (Table 1). Paddy fields at 1 ,400 m were excluded from the sampling, as they supported few moss colonies. Three major substrates, namely rock, soil and wood, were selected as microhabitats. The woody substrates included tree trunks, branches, twigs, logs and stumps. Search and collection of all the moss colonies was carried out in each plot from June-October in 1994-95. Representative samples from each colony were preserved in bamboo paper pouches (30 cm x 30 cm). Species level identifications were made with the help of a moss taxonomist at the Botanical Survey of India (BSI). The taxonomy was based mainly on the keys by Chopra (1975) and Gangulee (1969-72). The specimens which could not be identified to the species level were either considered as distinct yet anonymous species (sp.), or assigned to a species which the majority of its structural and ecological characteristics resembled (cf.). Voucher samples of all the recorded species from the study area were preserved in the Herbarium of BSI. The numbers of trees above 10 cm girth at 130 cm height above ground and patches of shrubs (>10 cm height) in all plots were also noted. Although the mosses could not be sampled on trees above a height of 2.5 m, many canopy species were collected from fallen branches and twigs. Data analysis Alpha-Beta Diversity: Alpha-diversity was measured as number of, species, genera or families of mosses per plot (Whitaker 1972). Compositional change of species, genera or families from one plot to another (beta- diversity or turnover) was calculated as a Chord-distance or dissimilarity index, preferred over Jaccards similarity index (Ludwig and Reynold 1 988). The former index is more robust, as it uses abundance information also, whereas the latter requires only the presence - absence data. Chord distance between j* and kth plots is given as: Where, Ny and are the numbers of colonies of Ith taxon in jth and kth plots, & and Sk are the numbers of species, genera or families in j* and kth plots respectively. The dissimilarity (distance) values vary from 0 to 1.42, for pairs of plots corresponding with having none to completely dissimilar taxonomic composition. The matrix of the dissimilarity values for all pairs of plots was subjected to simple linkage cluster analysis and depicted as a dendrogram after re-scaling the values between 0 to 1 (Mark and Roger 1984). Rarefaction: Sampling effort in terms of number of moss colonies across macro as well as microhabitats were highly unequal. I have, therefore, employed rarefaction process to compare these habitats for richness of moss diversity. How many species, genera or families do we get for an equal number of colonies sampled from each habitat type? Rarefaction addresses this question, and involves linearly increasing the number of colonies drawn from the pooled data (i.e. all the colonies in a particular habitat type) and the numbers of species, genera and families encountered were recorded. The above process was repeated 100 times, using computer simulations and the mean numbers of species, genera and families were calculated for a number of colonies sampled from each habitat type. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002 421 ABUNDANCE AND DIVERSITY OF MOSS COMMUNITIES OF CHOPTA-TUNGANATH Regression model and simulations: A simple linear regression model was used to interpret the data on the relationships among species, genus and family level alpha and beta diversities. Since the beta-diversity values are not independent of each other, there is every possibility that the observed relationships may have occurred by chance. Moreover, this causes uncertain degrees of freedom while establishing the magnitude of the relationship. To overcome this problem, computer simulations based on randomization process were employed. The beta- diversity values in one of the pairs of taxonomic hierarchy (species, genus or family level) were scrambled with respect to the other, thus randomizing the process and r was calculated. This procedure was repeated 1 ,000 times for each pair yielding 1,000 values of r. Level of significance value (p) was calculated as a proportion of the simulated values of r that were greater than the observed r. Thus, the relationship with r value at p < 0.005 arrived after simulations was considered significant. Results A total of 34 families with 87 genera and 177 species from 8,155 colonies sampled over 6,000 sq. m, constituted the moss community of Chopta-Tunganath. The moss taxa, their occurrence on the major substrates namely rock, soil and wood, elevation range and average abundance per sampled plot are given in Table 2. The distribution of numbers of species, genera and families on these three substrates are depicted in the form of Venn diagrams (Fig. 2). 31.67% of the species, 19.54% of the genera and 17.64% of the families were terricolous (on soil). 17.51% Fig. 2: Venn diagrams depicting distribution of (a) 177 species, (b) 87 genera and (c) 34 families of moss communities on rock, soil and wood 422 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002 ABUNDANCE AND DIVERSITY OF MOSS COMMUNITIES OF CHOPTA-TUNGANATH Table 2: Average abundance of mosses [in descending order] per plot and altitude range from Chopta-Tunganath Family Taxa Species Alt, Range Max Min xlOO Fq. No. of colonies Rock Soil Wood Abun/plot Avg. Stdev. Thuidiaceae Thuidium cymbifolium (Doz. et Molk.) Doz. et Molk. 37 25 11 51 595 139 65.42 32.92 Entodontaceae Entodon rubicundus (Mitt.) Jaeg. 37 15 12 26 332 178 44.67 30.32 Grimmiaceae Racomitrium subsecundum (Hook. & Grev.) Mitt. 37 26 10 97 305 11 34.42 40.12 Dicranaceae Dicranodontium caespitosum (Mitt.) Par. 37 '25 9 14 353 26 32.75 36.55 Polytrichaceae Pogonatum aloides (Hedw.) P. Beauv. 37 25 11 20 336 8 30.33 22.75 Bryaceae Bryum pseudotriquetrum (Hedw.) Schwaegr. 37 25 8 26 323 5 29.50 47.56 Hypnaceae Hypnum cupressiforme L. ex Hedw. 37 26 10 33 144 84 21.75 17.95 Dicranaceae Dicranum spurium Hedw. 37 34 3 0 220 16 19.67 58.43 Entodontaceae Rozea pterogonioides (Harv.) Jaeg. 36 34 2 26 177 4 17.25 41.96 Hypnaceae Ectropothecium cyperoides (Hook.) Jaeg. 32 25 3 9 138 48 16.25 30.35 Brachytheciaceae Rhynchostegium calderii Vohra 32 25 3 9 138 48 16.25 30.35 Hylocomiaceae Hylocomium himalayanum (Mitt.) Jaeg. 37 26 5 0 153 30 15.25 30.63 Hookeriaceae Orontobryum hookeri (Mitt.) Fleisch 37 25 8 0 129 20 12.42 16.34 Pottiaceae Bryoerythrophyllum wallichii (Mitt.) Chen. 36 26 7 2 120 25 12.25 16.33 Amblystegiaceae Amblystegium juratzkanum Schimp. 32 26 4 3 119 20 11.83 31.25 Pottiaceae Oxystegus tenuirostris (Hook. & Tayl.) A.J.E.Smith 37 15 10 7 115 16 11.50 15.35 Leskeaceae Pseudoleskea laevifolia (Mitt.) Jaeg. 37 26 8 20 87 27 11.17 13.01 Brachytheciaceae Rhynchostegiella humillima (Mitt.) Broth. 37 25 10 6 78 46 10.83 15.20 Leucodontaceae Leucodon sciuroides (Hedw.) Schwaegr. 32 26 6 2 10 116 10.67 19.87 Trachypodaceae Trachypodopsis serrulata (P. Beauv.) Fleisch. 31 15 7 3 40 64 9.08 17.43 Entodontaceae Entodon myurus (Hook.) Hamp. 15 15 1 0 91 16 8.92 30.89 Amblystegiaceae Amblystegium serpens (Hedw.) B.S.G. 37 26 8 1 90 3 7.83 13.90 Polytrichaceae Atrichum undulatum (Hedw.) P.Beauv. 32 25 6 0 85 8 7.75 15.02 Meteoriaceae Meteorium buchananii (Brid.) Broth. 26 25 2 0 0 91 7.58 22.75 Mniaceae Mnium rostratum Schrad. 37 25 7 3 81 2 7.17 18.34 Polytrichaceae Pogonatum microstomum (Schwaegr.) Brid. 37 26 7 0 82 0 7.00 10.01 Brachytheciaceae Brachythecium rivulare B.S.G. 26 25 2 39 35 6 6.67 19.11 Encalyptaceae Encalypta streptocarpa Hedw. 37 34 2 10 68 0 6.50 21.89 Brachytheciaceae Brachythecium salebrosum (WEb. et Mohr) B.S.G. 34 25 8 2 68 5 6.25 10.76 Dicranaceae Symblepharis vaginata (Hook.) Wijk. & Marg. 32 25 6 1 2 72 6.25 13.93 Brachytheciaceae Brachythecium kamounense (Harv.) Jaeg. 32 26 5 0 41 31 6.00 14.60 Dicranaceae Atractylocarpus sinensis (Broth.) Herz. 37 25 4 0 62 2 5.33 8.25 Dicranaceae Dicranodontium didictyon (Mitt.) Jaeg. 34 29 4 5 52 3 5.00 11.14 Orthotrichaceae Macromitrium nepalense (Hook. & Grev.) Schwaegr. 15 15 1 36 5 19 5.00 17.32 Brachytheciaceae Brachythecium procumbens (Mitt.) Jaeg. 34 29 4 7 44 7 4.83 9.32 Neckeraceae Homaliodendron sphaerocarpum Nog. 34 30 3 9 49 0 4.83 15.50 Sematophyllaceae Struckia argentata (Mitt.) C.Muell. 32 26 4 1 5 50 4.67 14.00 Bryaceae Bryum badhwari Ochi 30 25 4 0 48 3 4.25 10.78 Dicranaceae Aongstroemia orientalis Mitt 37 27 4 2 43 1 3.83 10.03 Bryaceae Rhodobryum roseum (Hedw.) Limpr. 26 15 2 0 46 0 3.83 12.07 Brachytheciaceae Eurhynchium striatum (Hedw.) Schimp. 32 25 3 0 42 2 3.67 6.98 Grimmiaceae Racomitrium himalayanum (Mitt.) Jaeg. 31 29 3 1 34 4 3.25 7.93 Rhytidiaceae Rhytidiadelphus triquetrus (Hedw.) Wamst 36 34 2 0 37 0 3.08 8.71 Thuidiaceae Herpetineuron toccoae (Sul. et Lesq.) Card. 15 15 1 1 35 0 3.00 10.39 Thuidiaceae Thuidium sparsifolium (Mitt.) Jaeg. 15 15 1 20 0 16 3.00 10.39 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002 423 ABUNDANCE AND DIVERSITY OF MOSS COMMUNITIES OF CHOPTA-TUNGANATH Table 2 (contd.y. Average abundance of mosses [in descending order] per plot and altitude range from Chopta-Tunganath Family Taxa Species Alt Range Max Min xlOO Fq. No. of colonies Rock Soil Wood Abun/plot Avg. Stdev. Pottiaceae Pseudosymblepharis angustata (Mitt.) Hilp. 37 26 5 0 3 31 2.92 4.34 Mniaceae Mnium pseudopunctatum Bruch & Schimp. 36 34 2 0 34 0 2.83 8.91 Thuidiaceae Anomodon rugelli (C. Muell.) Keissl. 32 27 5 0 13 20 2.75 4.52 Entodontaceae Entodon laetus (Griff.) Jaeg. 15 15 1 0 33 0 2.75 9.53 Entodontaceae Entodon plicatus C. Muell. 15 15 1 0 33 0 2.75 9.53 Funariaceae Entosthodon wallichii Mitt. 37 25 4 5 27 0 2.67 5.37 Bryaceae Pohlia minor Schleich. ex Schwaegr. 37 26 3 0 29 1 2.50 5.32 Pottiaceae Anoectangium thomsonii Mitt. 31 27 4 4 22 3 2.42 5.23 Amblystegiaceae Campylium sommerfeltii (Myr.) Bryhn 36 34 2 0 29 0 2.42 5.65 Bryaceae Pohlia flexuosa Hook. 29 15 2 0 29 0 2.42 7.76 Hypnaceae Vesicularia kurzii (Lac.) Broth. 37 34 3 0 29 0 2.42 6.60 Pottiaceae Hyophila involuta (Hook.) Jaeg. 15 15 1 25 0 3 2.33 8.08 Brachytheciaceae Brachythecium longicuspidatum (Mitt.) Jaeg. 31 28 3 1 8 18 2.25 6.08 Bryaceae Pohlia elongata Hedw. 32 25 5 0 22 5 2.25 4.69 Brachytheciaceae Brachythecium populeum (Hedw.) B.S.G. 32 32 1 0 24 2 2.17 7.51 Sematophyllaceae Brotherella pallida (Ren. & Card.) Fleisch. 32 32 1 0 24 2 2.17 7.51 Bryaceae Anomobryum filiforme (Dicks) Solms in Rabenh. 37 28 2 0 25 0 2.08 6.91 Hypnaceae Vesicularia montagnei (Bel.) Broth. 34 26 3 7 18 0 2.08 4.52 Brachytheciaceae Rhynchostegiella sachensis Dix. 32 27 2 0 17 7 2.00 6.32 Bryaceae Brachymenium ochianum Gangulee 31 15 8 0 6 17 1.92 2.23 Trachypodaceae Duthiella declinata (Mitt.) Zant. 31 26 4 0 2 21 1.92 5.71 Entodontaceae Entodon luteonitens Ren. & Car. 15 15 1 0 23 0 1.92 6.64 Mniaceae Mnium cuspidatum Hedw. 29 28 2 2 20 1 1.92 5.05 Dicranaceae Dicranodontium capillifolium (Dix.) Tak. 36 29 3 0 20 2 1.83 5.44 Amblystegiaceae Drepanocladus uncinatus (Hedw.) Wamst. 36 36 1 0 21 0 1.75 6.06 Entodontaceae Entodon luridus (Griff.) Jaeg. 30 26 2 5 14 2 1.75 4.94 Hypnaceae Vesicularia levieri Card. 32 26 2 0 15 6 1.75 4.35 Ptychomitriaceae Ptychomitrium tortula (Harv.) Jaeg. 31 29 3 0 20 0 1.67 3.63 Sematophyllaceae Brotherella amblystegia (Mitt.) Broth. 36 36 1 0 19 0 1.58 5.48 Encalyptaceae Encalypta ciliata Hedw. 34 31 2 15 4 0 1.58 4.38 Dicranaceae Campylopus involutus (C. Muell) Jaeg. 37 31 3 0 17 1 1.50 4.58 Bartramiaceae Fleischerobryum longicolle (Hamp.) Loesk. 26 26 1 0 18 0 1.50 5.20 Mniaceae Mnium japonicum Lindb. 37 30 2 0 18 0 1.50 4.60 Thuidiaceae Thuidium squarrosulum Ren. et Card. 15 15 1 17 0 0 1.42 4.91 Dicranaceae Campylopus alpigena Broth. 36 36 1 0 16 0 1.33 4.62 Bryaceae Bryum capillare L. ex Hedw. 31 15 2 8 4 3 1.25 4.03 Dicranaceae Dicranum sp. 1 37 31 3 0 11 4 1.25 2.73 Hylocomiaceae Leptohymenium tenue (Hook.) Jaeg. 26 25 2 0 0 15 1.25 3.28 Bryaceae Pohlia rigescens (Mitt.) Broth. 37 36 2 0 15 0 1.25 3.11 Pottiaceae Barbu la asperifolia (Mitt.) Crum et al. 31 28 4 0 12 2 1.17 2.62 Fabroniaceae Fabronia minuta Mitt. 15 15 1 14 0 0 1.17 4.04 Hypnaceae Isopterygium albescens (Hook.) Jaeg. 31 30 2 0 5 9 1.17 2.72 Bryaceae Pohlia longicolla 26 26 1 0 12 0 1.00 3.46 Grimmiaceae Racomitrium fuscescens Wils. 29 29 1 0 12 0 1.00 3.46 Entodontaceae Entodon curvatus (Griff.) Jaeg. 29 27 3 1 4 6 0.92 1.78 Bryaceae Mielichhoferia mielichhoferi (Hook.) Wijk & Marg. 3 1 29 3 0 11 0 0.92 1.98 Rhizogoniaceae Rhizogoniurn spiniforme (Hedw.) Bruch in Krauss 26 25 2 0 11 0 . 0.92 2.23 Orthotrichaceae Zygodon sp. 1 29 25 4 0 0 11 0.92 1.38 424 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002 ABUNDANCE AND DIVERSITY OF MOSS COMMUNITIES OF CHOPTA-TUNGANATH Table 2 (contd.): Average abundance of mosses [in descending order] per plot and altitude range from Chopta-Tunganath Family Taxa Species Alt. Range Max Min xlOO Fq. No. of colonies Rock Soil Wood Abun/plot Avg. Stdev. Hypnaceae Isopterygium lignicola (Mitt.) Jaeg. 32 15 3 1 4 5 0.83 2.29 Sematophyllaceae Meiothecium speciosa 29 27 2 0 3 7 0.83 2.12 Thuidiaceae Thuidium sp. 1 26 26 1 0 0 10 0.83 2.89 Plagiotheciaceae Stereophyllum wightii (Mitt.) Jaeg. 15 15 1 0 0 9 0.75 2.60 Brachytheciaceae Brachythecium plumosum (Hedw.) B.S.G. 31 29 2 0 8 0 0.67 1.56 Amblystegiaceae Campylium chrysophyllum (Brid.) J. Lauge 37 26 2 0 6 2 0.67 1.78 Ditrichaceae Di trichum darjeelingense Ren. & Card. 28 27 2 0 8 0 0.67 1.78 Brachytheciaceae Brachythecium pachytheceum (Dix.) Vohra 31 31 1 0 4 3 0.58 2.02 Bryaceae Bryum recurvulum Mitt. 30 30 1 0 7 0 0.58 2.02 Amblystegiaceae Hygrohypnum nairii Vohra 25 25 1 7 0 0 0.58 2.02 Leskeaceae Lindbergia longinervis Card, et Dix. 25 25 1 0 0 7 0.58 2.02 Splachnaceae Splachnobryum indicum Hamp. et Hamp. 37 34 2 2 5 0 0.58 1.73 Dicranaceae Campylopus milleri Ren. et Card. 28 27 2 0 6 0 0.50 1.17 Hylocomiaceae Macrothamnium submacrocarpum (Ren. & Card.) Fleisch. 31 29 3 2 4 0 0.50 0.90 Plagiotheciaceae Plagiothecium denticulatum (Hedw.) B.S.G. 36 29 2 0 6 0 0.50 1.45 Sematophyllaceae Pylaisiopsis speciosa (Mitt.) Broth. 30 29 2 3 3 0 0.50 1.17 Sematophyllaceae Sematophyllum micans (Mitt.) Braithw. 29 27 2 0 4 2 0.50 1.24 Neckeraceae Thamnobryum subseriatum (Hook.) Nog. 31 30 2 0 3 3 0.50 1.45 Sematophyllaceae Trolliella euendostoma Herz. 37 37 1 0 6 0 0.50 1.73 Polytrichaceae A trichum flavisetum Mitt. 37 32 2 0 5 0 0.42 1.16 Dicranaceae Campylopus ericoides (Griff.) Jaeg. 31 31 1 0 5 0 0.42 1.44 Hypnaceae Ectropothecium buitenzorgii (Bel.) Mont. 29 25 2 0 0 5 0.42 1.16 Hypnaceae Isopterygium longitheca (Mitt.) Jaeg. 31 31 1 0 0 5 0.42 1.44 Pottiaceae Barbula constricta (Mitt.) Saito 31 31 1 0 4 0 0.33 1.15 Pottiaceae Bry’oerythrophyllum dentatum (Mitt.) Chen. 28 27 2 1 0 3 0.33 0.89 Bryaceae Bryum atrovirens Brid. 25 25 1 0 0 4 0.33 1.15 Rhytidiaceae Gollania clarescens (Mitt.) Broth. 25 25 1 0 0 4 0.33 1.15 Hylocomiaceae Macrothamnium macrocarpum (Reinw. & Hornseh.) Fleisch. 26 26 1 0 4 0 0.33 1.15 Brachytheciaceae Rhynchostegiella divaricatifolia (Ren. etCard.) Broth. 30 27 2 0 4 0 0.33 0.89 Splachnaceae Splachnobryum sp. 1 31 31 1 4 0 0 0.33 1.15 Meteoriaceae Aerobryidium filamentosum (Hook.) Fleisch. 15 15 1 0 0 3' 0.25 0.87 Brachytheciaceae Brachythecium buchananii (Hook.) Jaeg. 31 31 1 0 3 0 0.25 0.87 Brachytheciaceae Brachythecium curvatulum (Broth.) Par. 37 29 2 0 3 0 0.25 0.62 Dicranaceae Brothera leana (Sull.) C. Muell. 28 27 O L. 1 1 1 0.25 0.62 Pottiaceae Bryoerythrophyllum recurvum (Griff.) Saito 37 27 3 0 2 1 0.25 0.45 Bryaceae Bryum plumosum Doz. et Molk. 15 15 1 3 0 0 0.25 0.87 Neckeraceae Calyptothecium pinnatum Nog. 15 15 1 0 0 3 0.25 0.87 Dicranaceae Campylopus laetus (Mitt.) Jaeg. 31 31 1 0 3 0 0.25 0.87 Sematophyllaceae Glossadelphus zollingeri (C. Muell.) Fleisch. 29 26 2 0 0 3' 0.25 0.6.2 Grimm iaceae Grimmia redunca Wils. ex Mitt. 31 31 1 0 J 0 0.25 0.87 Grimmiaceae Grimmia sp. 1 31 31 1 0 3 0 0.25 0.87 Hypnaceae Isopterygium minutirameum (C. Muell.) Jaeg. 29 27 2 0 1 2 0.25 0.62 Leskeaceae Lindbergia koelzii Williams 15 15 1 0 0 3 0.25 0.87 Orthotrichaceae Macromitrium moorcroftii (Hook. & Grev.) Schwaegr. 25 25 1 0 0 3 0.25 0.87 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC 2002 425 ABUNDANCE AND DIVERSITY OF MOSS COMMUNITIES OF CHOPTA-TUNGANATH Table 2 (contd.): Average abundance of mosses [in descending order] per plot and altitude range from Chopta-Tunganath Family Taxa Species Alt. Range Max Min xlOO Fq. No. of colonies Rock Soil Wood Abun/plot Avg. Stdev. Plagiotheciaceae Plagiothecium neckeroideum B.S.G. 15 15 1 3 0 0 0.25 0.87 Pottiaceae Weisia rutilans (Hedw.) Lindb. 31 31 1 0 3 0 0.25 0.87 Brachytheciaceae Brachythecium falcatulum (Broth.) Par. 31 31 1 0 2 0 0.17 0.58 Brachytheciaceae Br achy the cium obsoletinerve Dix. 31 29 2 0 1 1 0.17 0.39 Bryaceae Bryum paradoxum Schwaegr. 28 28 1 0 2 0 0.17 0.58 Hylocomiaceae Macrothamnium stigmatophyllum Fleisch. 37 37 1 0 2 0 0.17 0.58 Mniaceae Mnium integrum Bosch & Lac. 30 15 2 1 1 0 0.17 0.39 Plagiotheciaceae Plagiothecium cavifolium (Brid.) Iwats. 29 28 2 1 0 1 0.17 0.39 Leskeaceae Pseudoleskea incurvata (Hedw.) Loesk. 31 31 1 0 2 0 0.17 0.58 Brachytheciaceae Rhynchostegium celebicum (Lac.) Jaeg. 26 26 1 0 2 0 0.17 0.58 Cryphaeaceae Schoenobryum concavifolium (Griff.) Gangulee 15 15 1 0 0 2 0.17 0.58 Sematophyllaceae Sematophyllum subhumile (C.Muell.) Fleisch. 32 32 1 0 0 2 0.17 0.58 Hypnaceae Vesicularia succosa (Mitt.) Broth. 31 30 2 0 1 1 0.17 0.39 Sematophyllaceae Wijkia tanytricha (Mont.) Crum 30 30 1 0 2 0 0.17 0.58 Thuidiaceae Anomodon thraustus C. Muell. 29 29 1 0 0 1 0.08 0.29 Pottiaceae Barbula eroso-denticulata (C.Muell.) Saito 27 27 1 0 0 1 0.08 0.29 Pottiaceae Barbula hastata (Mitt.) Zander 30 30 1 0 0 1 0.08 0.29 Brachytheciaceae Brachythecium brachycladum (Broth.) Par. 28 28 1 0 1 0 0.08 0.29 Brachytheciaceae Brachythecium formosanum Takaki 30 30 1 0 1 0 0.08 0.29 Brachytheciaceae Brachythecium wichurae (Broth.) Par. 30 30 1 0 0 1 0.08 0.29 Pottiaceae Bryoerythrophyllum recurvirostrum (Hedw.) Chen. 31 31 1 0 1 0 0.08 0.29 Bryaceae Bryum caespiticium L. ex Hedw. 31 31 1 0 1 0 0.08 0.29 Brachytheciaceae Cirriphyllum cirrhosum (Schwaegr.) Grout 30 30 1 0 0 1 0.08 0.29 Fabroniaceae Fabronia secunda Mont. 27 27 1 0 1 0 0.08 0.29 Fissidentaceae Fissidens sp. 1 26 26 1 0 0 1 0.08 0.29 Pottiaceae Hyophila rosea Williams 15 15 1 1 0 0 0.08 0.29 Hypnaceae Isopterygium sp. 1 29 29 1 0 0 1 0.08 0.29 Orthotrichaceae Macromitrium hymenostomum Mont. 15 15 1 0 0 1 0.08 0.29 Pterobryaceae Penzigiella cordata (Hook.) Fleisch. 31 31 1 0 1 0 0.08 0.29 Bartramiaceae Philonotis fontana (Hedw.) Brid. 31 31 1 0 1 0 0.08 0.29 Bartramiaceae Philonotis nitida Mitt. 29 29 1 0 1 0 0.08 0.29 Polytrichaceae Pogonatum neesi (C.Muell.) Mitt. 30 30 1 0 1 0 0.08 0.29 Brachytheciaceae Rhynchostegiella menadensis (Lac.) Bartr. 31 31 1 0 0 1 0.08 0.29 Cryphaeaceae Scopelophila sp. 1 15 15 1 0 0 1 0.08 0.29 Sematophyllaceae Sematophyllum caespitosum (Hedw.) Mitt. 30 30 1 0 0 1 0.08 0.29 Sematophyllaceae Sematophyllum humile (Mitt.) Broth. 30 30 1 0 0 1 0.08 0.29 Sematophyllaceae Sematophyllum phoeniceum (C.Muell.) Fleisch. 29 29 1 0 0 1 0.08 0.29 Splachnaceae Tetraplodon mnioides (Hedw.) B.S.G. 37 37 1 0 1 0 0.08 0.29 Timmiaceae Timmia megapolitana Hedw. 31 31 1 0 1 0 0.08 0.29 Pottiaceae Trichostomum bombayense C.Muell. 30 30 1 0 0 1 0.08 0.29 Alt. = altitude; Max = maximum; Min = minimum; Fq = frequency of occurrence in plots; Abun = abundance Avg. = average; Stdev. = standard deviation of the species, 16.09% of the genera and 8.82% of the families were lignicolous (on wood). 3.95% of the species and 1 . 1 5% of the genera and none of the families, were saxicolous (on rock). Whereas 55.88% of the families with 20.3% of the species and 32.18% of the genera were 426 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002 120 ABUNDANCE AND DIVERSITY OF MOSS COMMUNITIES OF CHOPTA-TUNGANA TH JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002 All Fig. 3a-c: Accumulation of species (a), genera (b) and families (c) of moss with increasing number of colonies in different macrohabitat types. The macrohabitat types are: LQ; lower altitude Quercus forest (1,500 m), MQ; Middle altitude Quercus forest (2,500-2,800 m), HR; high altitude Rhododendron forest (2,900-3,200 m), HG; higher altitude grassland (3,400-3.700 m). The number of species, genera and families at each interval is an average of 1 00 simulations 140 ABUNDANCE AND DIVERSITY OF MOSS COMMUNITIES OF CHOPTA-TUNGANATH 428 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002 Fig. 4a-c: Accumulation of species (a), genera (b) and families (c) of moss with increasing number of pooled colonies in three microhabitat types namely rock, soil and wood. The number of species, genera and families at each interval is an average of 100 simulations ABUNDANCE AND DIVERSITY OF MOSS COMMUNITIES OF CHOPTA-TUNGANATH HG (3600m) HG (3400m) HG (3700m) — — HR(3200m) HR(3100m) HR (3000m) HR(2900m) — — MQ (2800m) p — MQ (2700m) MQ (2600m) *— — MQ (2500m) - — — — LQ( 1500m) » i i- — - 8 — ... — t — 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 Rescaled Chord distance Fig. 5: Complete linkage dendrogram of 12 plots sampled in different macrohabitat types based on Chord distance with respect to species composition. Macrohabitats are LQ: lower altitude Quercus forest, MQ: middle altitude Quercus forest, HR: high altitude Rhododendron forest, HG: higher altitude grassland generalists, occurring in all three substrates. The rest of the taxa shared two of the three microhabitats in the area. Entodon rubicundus, Racomitrium subsecundum and Thuidium cymbifolium were the most abundant, wide-niche generalist species with wide elevation range, frequently occurring in all three substrates. Philonotis nitida , Pogonatum neesi , Tetraplodon mnioides and Timmia megapolitana , encountered only once during the study, were rare. Species such as Pogonatum microstomum , moderately abundant in more than 58% of the macrohabitat types in the area, may be considered as habitat specialists, confined to soil microhabitats. High altitude mixed forests of Rhododendron have the highest number of moss species, followed by middle altitude Quercus forests, higher altitude grasslands and finally lower altitude Quercus forest. For family level richness, middle altitude Quercus forest is the richest, followed by high altitude mixed Rhododendron forest, higher altitude grassland and lower altitude Quercus forest. Middle altitude Quercus forests and high altitude mixed forest of Rhododendron were equally rich in the number of genera in equal numbers of sampled moss colonies (Fig. 3a-c). Soil microhabitats support the highest number of species, followed by wood and rock substrates (Fig. 4a-c). But at genus level, wood turns up as rich as the soil. The majority of species, genera and families prefer soil and wood microhabitats. However, a few species consistently grow exclusively on rocks. This indicates the importance of rock, soil and wood JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002 429 ABUNDANCE AND DIVERSITY OF MOSS COMMUNITIES OF CHOPTA-TUNGANATH Genera Genus Turnover Fig. 6: Relationship between species, genus and family level richness of moss combinations in microhabitats for diversity of moss communities. The change of composition of moss species across the plots i.e. beta-diversity or turnover along the elevation is depicted in Fig. 5. The Family Turnover Family Turnover Fig. 7: Relationship between species, genus and family level turnover of moss community plots belonging to the same macrohabitat tend to cluster, depending on the moss species composition. The moss assemblages, therefore, appear to reflect the characteristics of the macrohabitats in which they occur. 430 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC 2002 ABUNDANCE AND DIVERSITY OF MOSS COMMUNITIES OF CHOPTA-TUNGANATH The relationships among taxonomic ranks of species, genera and families of mosses with respect to their alpha and beta diversities along with fitted regression equations are given in Figs 6 and 7. There is a significant positive correlation (p < 0.005) between species, genus and family level in alpha (Fig. 6) as well as beta-diversity (Fig. 7). Discussion Floristic studies in India, particularly on the lower plants, lack objective oriented field methodology. This has hindered the long term monitoring of biological diversity (Negi and Gadgil 1997, Negi 1999, Negi 2000). In this study, replicable methodological approach is adopted that may in turn facilitate comparable studies in future. Numbers of species or any other higher ranks of taxonomic organization at sites (richness or alpha-diversity) and change across the habitats (turnover or beta-diversity) are important parameters of biodiversity in environmental monitoring and conservation evaluation (Magurran 1988, Pressey et al. 1994, Negi 1999). We found that a mosaic of macrohabitats and microhabitats vary in terms of these biodiversity attributes. Higher altitude Rhododendron forest is the richest habitat for mosses. Interestingly, the lower altitude Quercus forest is consistently poorer than the higher altitude grassland, which hardly has any woody microhabitats for the wood loving taxa. It may be that though the lower altitude Quercus forest is managed by the locals for cutting and lopping, there is no control over grazing and collection of fuel wood throughout the year. This probably rendered the forest with only tree trunk bark inhabiting species along with a few saxicolous moss taxa. Higher altitude grasslands are open for grazing, but only during the summer season. Lower diversity of woody plants may also contribute to the paucity of moss in the lower elevation Quercus forest. However, there was no significant relationship between numbers of species of woody plants and the moss species diversity in the area. Although the majority of the species were soil specific, the moss richness seemed to be greatly affected by woody microhabitats, as many species occur only on this substrate. This pattern brings out the importance of such microhabitats in the area and cautions us about the potential adverse anthropogenic impacts of deforestation, habitat degradation and fire, the frequency of which is increasing alarmingly in the region (Semwal and Mehta 1996). The study identifies rare species in the moss community, with quantitative infonnation on the patterns of distribution, populations, taxa in the landscape. Without such information, any program for conservation and sustainable management of bioresources in the fragile ecosystems of the Himalaya will remain on shaky ground. There is neither time nor funds adequate to sample and identify all the species in a given area for periodically monitoring large diverse lower plant communities such as moss. This is because numbers of species is generally high and the identification is time consuming. Therefore, a reduced set of taxonomic ranks other than the species may be used as surrogates for cost-effective assessment of biodiversity (Williams and Gaston 1994, Prance 1994, Negi 1999). It. is therefore necessary to establish a relationship of species diversity with the higher taxonomic ranks. The present investigation attempted to establish such a relationship, and showed that even at the family level, inventory of moss community may be helpful in accurately predicting its species diversity. Similar results have also been shown in the same communities, but from a different landscape in the same region of the Himalaya (Negi 2000). Conclusions and conservation implications: Moss diversity sharply declines from the seasonally grazed high altitude Rhododendron forest and alpine meadows to the highly disturbed Quercus forest in the lower elevation. The richness of mosses is related to the moderate levels of JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002 431 ABUNDANCE AND DIVERSITY OF MOSS COMMUNITIES OF CHOPTA-TUNGANATH disturbance by grazing and other factors, such as frequency of human visits for fuel wood and fodder collection, which goes on throughout the year in the Quercus forests. However, low temperature and high humidity in the high elevation habitats of Rhododendron and grasslands might have also contributed to the rich diversity of moss. These factors should be taken care of while designing conservation plans. Apart from livestock grazing, tourism has emerged as the major land use pressure in the high altitude zones of the Chopta-Tunganath. Its increasing demands may lead to overgrazing of higher altitude grasslands and excessive wood collection from the woodlands, leading to severe damage to the moss communities, including the loss of rare species. Thus, the dynamics of biodiversity of moss in relation to the livestock grazing and tourism as major land use activities in the Himalaya needs further research. Acknowledgements I thank Professor Madhav Gadgil for inspiring me to work in this interesting area of research. Thanks are due to Dr. Nehal Aziz for identifying the species. Local hospitality by C.P. Bhat and his organization DGSM in the study area and field assistance by Bharat Singh Rawat were invaluable. Discussions with Drs. N.V. Joshi, Mallikarjun Shakarad, Robert and Utkarsh Ghate were fruitful. Financial support from Ministry of Environment and Forests, and Department of Science and Technology, Government of India is acknowledged. Last but not the least, thanks are due to Dr. P.S. Ahuja, Director, Institute of Himalayan Bioresource Technology, for kindly extending the Institute’s infrastructure facilities to revise the manuscript. References Chopra, R.S. (1975): Taxonomy of Indian Mosses. Publications & Information Directorate (CSIR), New Delhi. Gangulee, H.C. (1969-72): Mosses of Eastern India and Adjacent Regions — A Monograph. Vol. I-III. Published by the author, Calcutta - 14. Gaston, K.J. (Ed.) (1996): Biodiversity: A biology of numbers and difference. Blackwell Science, Oxford, pp. 396. Gupta, R.K. (1964): Forest Types of Garhwal Himalayas in relation to Edaphic and Geological Formations. Journ. Soc. Indian For. 4: 147-160. Heywood, V.H. (Ed.) (1995): Global Biodiversity Assessment. Cambridge University Press, London. Kumar, S.S. & R.S. Chopra (1981): Mosses of the Western Himalayas and adjacent plains. The Chronica Botanica Company, New Delhi. Ludwig, J.A. & J.F. Reynold (1988): Statistical Ecology. John Wiley and Sons, New York. Magurran, A.E. (1988): Ecological diversity and its measurements. Princeton University Press, USA. Mark, S.A. & K.B. Roger (1984): Cluster analysis. Sage, London. Negi, H.R. ( 1 996): Usnea longissima — the winter staple food of Musk Deer: A case study from Musk Deer Breeding Center, Kanchulakharak in Garhwal Himalayas. Tiger Paper 23(1 ): 30-32. Negi, H.R. (1999): Co-variation in diversity and conservation value across taxa: A case study from Garhwal Himalaya. Ph.D. thesis, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India. Negi, H.R. (2000): Species richness and turnover of moss communities in Western Parts of Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve. Int. J. Ecol. Env. Sci. 26: 1-18. Negi, H.R. & M. Gadgil (1997): Species Diversity and Community Ecology of Mosses: A case study from Garhwal region of Western Himalayas. Int. J. Ecol. Env. Sci. 23: 445-462. Prance, G. T. ( 1 994) A comparison of the efficacy of higher taxa and species numbers in the assessment of bio- diversity in the Neotropics. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. Lon. 345: 89-99 Pressey, R.L., I.R. Johanson & P.D. Wilson (1994): Shades of irreplaceability: towards a measure of the contribution of sites to a reservation goal. Biod. Con. 3: 242-262. Ricklefs, R.E. & D. Schluter (1993): Species diversity: regional and historical influences. In: Species Diversity in Ecological Communities: Historical and geographical perspectives. (Eds. Ricklefs, R.E. and D. Schluter), University of Chicago Press, Chicago. Pp. 350-363. 432 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002 ABUNDANCE AND DIVERSITY OF MOSS COMMUNITIES OF CHOPTA-TUNGANATH Semwal, J.K. & R.D. Gaur (1981): Alpine flora of Tunganath in the Garhwal Himalaya. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 78: 498-512. Semwal, R.L. & J.R Mehta (1996): Ecology of forest fires in Chir Pine forests of Garhwal Himalayas. Curr. Sci. 70(6): 426-27. Sundriyal, R.C. ( 1 992): Structure, productivity and energy flow in an alpine grassland in the Garhwal Himalaya. J. Veg. Sci. 3: 15-20. Upreti, D.K. & H.R. Negi ( 1 998): Lichen Flora of Chopta- Tunganath Garhwal Himalayas, India. J. Econ. Tax. Bot. 22(1): 1-14. Whitaker, R.H. (1972): Evolution and measurement of species diversity. Taxon 21: 213-251 . Williams, P.H. & K.J. Gaston (1994): Measuring more of Biodiversity: Can higher-taxon richness predict wholesale species richness? Biol. Con. 67: 211-217. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002 433 STATUS, ECOLOGY AND BEHAVIOUR OF NARCONDAM HORNBILL (AC EROS NARCONDAMI) IN NARCONDAM ISLAND, ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS, INDIA1 ( With three text-figures) H.S.A. Yahya2 and Ashfaq Ahmed Zarri2’3 Key words: Narcondam hombill, Aceros narcondami , Andaman and Nicobar Islands, status, behaviour, habitat, feeding, nesting, conservation Narcondam Island is part of the submerged lines of hills which constitute the Andaman and Nicobar (A & N hereafter) Archipelago in the Bay of Bengal (Abdulali 1971). The Narcondam hornbill Aceros narcondami, endemic to Narcondam Island, is an interesting species from the ecological and evolutionary point of view, and is also a Red Data Book (RDB) species (King 1981). It has been declared endangered due to its restricted range (Stattersfield et al. 1998). The Island was recently declared an Important Bird Area (IBA) under the IBA programme launched by Birdlife International and the BNHS in India. Considering the isolation of this important species and scanty information on its ecology and biology, a short-term study was conducted in March 2000. Line transect method was adopted for population estimation. Observations were carried out to collect data on behavioural aspects like feeding, pre- and post-roosting behaviour, nesting, vocalization and interaction with other species. Circular Plot and PCQ method were used to estimate the tree density. Around 432 birds were estimated to be on the Island. Population density estimate using line transect was 72 birds/sq. km. Twenty active nests were recorded. Though the present population seems to be stable, the confinement of the hornbills on such a small island makes them vulnerable to intrinsic and extrinsic threats. Introduction Island life exhibits features of special interest. The sea is a barrier to its colonisation by terrestrial life forms, but the species that are once established frequently develop new features in their isolated surroundings. A long established sea barrier results in marked differences between the animal and vegetation even of adjacent islands. India has a number of islands both in the Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea, the former being much larger and more habitable. The islands in Bay of Bengal represent submarine mountains, while the islands in the Arabian Sea are entirely built by corals (Singh 1920). ‘Accepted May, 2002 department of Wildlife Sciences, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh 202 002, Uttar Pradesh, India. ’Present address: Bombay Natural History Society, Hornbill House, S.B. Singh Road, Mumbai 400 023, Maharashtra, India. The Narcondam hornbill (Aceros narcondami) is an endemic bird. Scanty information is available on its population, ecology and biology, due to the remoteness of its home, Narcondam Island. There are records of only seven to eight visits, of not more than five days, between 1873 and 1984. Prain(1893), Cory (1902), Osmaston (1905) and John (1889) are few records of the species. Hussain (1984) and Ravi Sankaran (pers. comm.) in 1998 spent 1-3 months. Kemp (1995) has summarized information and Ravi Sankaran (pers. comm.) has discussed the current conservation problems of this vulnerable species. A rough estimate given by Ravi Sankaran indicated 290-320 birds. Apart from these, there is no other comprehensive study on the biology and ecology of the Narcondam hornbills. Thus, the present study was conducted to assess the present status, ecology and behaviour of this isolated species. 434 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002 STATUS, ECOLOGY AND BEHAVIOUR OF NARCONDAM HORN BILL Hombills (Bucerotidae and Bucorvidae) are a group of large, forest and savanna birds restricted to the Old World tropics. There are 54 species of hornbills in the world (Kemp 1988), nine of which occur in India (Ali and Ripley 1970). Only in the last decade, some studies provided valuable insight into the ecology of these unique cavity-nesting birds (Mudappa 2000). The Indian hornbills are secondary cavity-nesters, largely forest dwelling species and predominantly frugivorous (Kemp 1976). Study Area Narcondam Island is one of the 323 islands of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, which lie in a long and narrow broken chain, approximately north to south, sprawling like an arc, and having an area of 8,293 sq. km. Around 80% land area is under forest cover. Narcondam Island (13° 27' N, 94° 17' E) lies about 114 km off Port Blair towards Myanmar (Fig. 1). It lies about 500 km off the Mergui Archipelago and about 300 km southwest of the Gulf of Martaban JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002 435 STATUS, ECOLOGY AND BEHAVIOUR OF NARCONDAM HORN BILL in Myanmar (Kemp 1995). It is logical to presume a former connection from Cape Negris at the southern end of Burma to Achin Head (Cape Pedro) in Andalas (Sumatras) (Osmaston 1905) The Island is an outcome of volcanic actions from the Sunda group, and lies, with the Nicobars, along one of the principal lines of weakness in the earth’s surface. Wadia referred to it as a craterless volcano composed wholly of andesectic lava (Abdulali 1971). The total area is approximately 6.8 sq. km, and the highest peak is about 750 m above msl. Legal status The Island was recently declared a Wildlife Sanctuary under the Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972. It falls under the jurisdiction of the DFO, Mayabunder in the North Andaman. It was uninhabited until 1969, when the Government of India made a lookout post. A party of 1 7 police personnel is deputed on the Island for three months by rotation. A lighthouse has recently been constructed on the southern edge of the Island. Climate The climate of the Andamans group of Islands is tropical wet and humid, with daily temperature ranging from 27.8 °C maximum to 21.8 °C minimum. The Island receives both southwest and northeast monsoons, from May to October. At times, cyclonic storms occur during this period, with rough weather conditions almost throughout the season. The average annual rainfall recorded for the Island from the nearest weather station at Mayabunder is 3,055 mm, with an average of 1 34 rainy days/year. July records the highest and March the lowest rainfall. Vegetation Prain (1893) described some aspects of the flora of Narcondam (Hussain 1984). The flora of the Andaman and Nicobar group of Islands has been described in detail by Parkinson (1923) and Thothari (1960). The Island bears several generations of old, dead and decaying trees, interlaced with thorny creepers and luxuriantly flowering tall trees. The vegetation can be divided into littoral, deciduous, evergreen and moist evergreen. The flora on the highest zones of the hill are mostly evergreen trees such as Dipt erocar pus, Sideroxylon and Ficus. However, some deciduous species (e.g. Semul Bombax insigne) are also seen. The vegetation towards the summit is mostly moist evergreen with several epiphytes. The lower hills following the shoreline have both deciduous and evergreen trees like Terminalia catappa , T. bialata , Parishia insignis , Caryota mitis and several thorny creepers. The shoreline has some introduced species such as coconut and banana. Apart from the introduced species, we could identify Sterculia religiosa , Barringtonia speciosa , Thespesia populnea , Pandanus , Scaevola koenigii, Ipomea biloba and Hibiscus tiliaceus. Good timber species also occur on the Island. Campsite and its environs The police camp area is very picturesque and is located on the eastern side of the Island. A considerable area has been transformed into a kitchen garden, with introduced plants, including about 25 varieties of vegetables and fruits. Some of the introduced species are growing like weeds. Remarkable among them is Tulsi ( Ocimum sp.), which can be seen in thick patches almost on all sides of the camp. It has also started invading the upper areas of the forest. Several trees of Ficus , Terminalia catappa and a small mangrove patch were also seen. Methodology and Analysis The Line Transect Method (Emlen 1971) was adopted to estimate the density of Narcondam hornbills. The computer program 436 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002 STA TUS, ECOLOGY AND BEHA VIOUR OF NARCONDAM HORNBILL transect was used to analyze the data. The program calculates density of objects at three cut points and generates 95% confidence interval for each estimate (Burnham et al. 1980). We also calculated the density manually by the following formula D - n / 2LY where D = Density, n = No. of sightings, L = Total length walked and Y = Average perpendicular distance Feeding at the nest by males was studied by shifts of observations on three nests, and three complete days were spent on each nest. Food items were identified by direct observation of fruiting trees and indirectly from the debris collected from the base of the nesting trees. Seeds collected from the midden were catalogued. Density of fruiting and nesting trees was estimated by taking 10 m circular plots. The general tree density of the study area was assessed by the Plot Circular Quadrat Method (PCQ). Plants of height greater than 5 m were considered for this purpose. A herbarium of tree species was collected and identified with the help of scientists at the Botanical Survey of India, Port Blair. Active nests were located by following the breeding males, and by checking signs of the previous year’s fecal remains (midden) at the base of nest trees. At times, begging calls of the young hornbills being fed by the males also helped in locating active nests. A wooden boat was used for observations along the periphery of the Island. A hide was constructed at Nest No. 2 for regular observations and photography. Results Population, status and distribution The density of the hornbills was calculated as 72 birds per sq. km. Considering the effective hornbill habitat (6 sq. km), about 432 birds occur on the Island. Flowever, a density of 83 hornbills per sq. km was estimated by the Fourier Series Estimator; percentage coefficient of variation was 8.9, lower limit 75.53 and upper limit 87.95. The hornbills are almost uniformly distributed on the Island, with no preference for any landscape feature. Fig. 2 shows the number of sightings in each group of perpendicular distances. Most of the encounters were between 10-30 m of perpendicular distance. 50 n Perpendicular Distances (m) Fig. 2: Number of sightings in each group of perpendicular distances JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002 437 STATUS, ECOLOGY AND BEHAVIOUR OF NARCONDAM HORN BILL Nest site characteristics and distribution There is no apparent preference for a particular tree species for nesting (Table 1). Nests were recorded on slopes, in valleys and on ridge tops at different altitudes. Nests were predominantly found in trunks of living trees, some were also seen in partially dead tall trees. Nest height varied from a minimum of 3 to 35 m in the recorded nests, however, most of them were 10-20 m high (Table 1). One unusual nest was recorded in the main trunk of a very thin tree about 5 m above the ground. The shortest distance between two nests was 8 m. Other bird species also nested near the hornbill’s nest: one nest of Alexandrine parakeet ( Psittacula eupatria) was just one metre above the hornbill’s nest on the same tree, while another nest of the olive-backed sunbird ( Nectarinia jugular is) was 4 m away. Most hombill nests were found facing east or west. Nest cavities of hornbills are probably used year after year, as evidenced by the remains of an old machan (Platform) near Nest No. 2, which was used by Sankaran in 1998. Nests were almost uniformly distributed on the Island, irrespective of altitude or other difference in microhabitats and there was no clumped setting. We found nests even just below the summit of the Island (645 m above msl, Table 1). Tree density A total of 9,420 sq. m area was sampled to estimate the fruiting and nesting tree density. 102 fruiting trees were recorded in sampled plots, giving a total density of 1,080 individuals per sq. km. Only 21 nesting trees were recorded in the same area and their density was calculated to be 222 trees per sq. km. However, the general tree density was 5,160 trees per sq. km from a sample of 50 circular plots. Behavioural observations Nest feeding'. The incarcerated adult female and nestlings are dependent on the male for providing food. A narrow slit was left in the wall through which the male fed his mate throughout the incubation and nestling period. The male offered berries, regurgitated one by one Table 1: Details ofNarcondam hornbill nests recorded during March 2000 Nest Date Altitude (m) Tree (Local name) Slope Face Nest opening Nest Height (m) App. Tree Height (m) 1 10.03 105 Thipok East East 12 30 2 11.03 120 Lattoo West South-west 15 28 3 13.03 95 Thipok West North-west 30 39 4 13.03 80 Thipok West South-west 10 28 5 15.03 490 Thipok West North-west 17 28 6 17.03 55 ? East South-west 12 28 7 17.03 55 Thipok West West 35 39 8 19.03 35 ? West Vertically upward 30 41 9 19.03 125 Dhoop East North 13 30 10 20.03 90 Mahua South-east South 20 32 11 21.03 645 Jaiphal South-west South-west 18 30 12 23.03 255 Jaiphal East North 5 25 13 23.03 245 Mahua South-east South-east 14 18 14 24.03 95 Dhoop South-west East 18 30 15 24.03 110 Mahua North-west West 28 34 16 25.03 160 Kali Lakri East West 10 27 17 25.03 190 Kali Lakri South North 11 27 18 26.03 80 Thipok North-west South 13 28 19 26.03 98 Lattoo South-west South-west 25 29 20 26.03 110 Lattoo South South 20 29 438 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002 STA TUS, ECOLOGY AND BEHA VIOUR OF NARCONDAM HORNBILL and shifted up to his bill-tip, to the female who passed it on to the young. Older nestlings may receive food directly from the male, but this was not clearly visible. The Narcondam hornbill is mainly frugivorous like other hornbill species and has a regular daily feeding schedule. Nest feeding started at 0440 hrs and the last feeding was recorded at 1705 hrs. Fig. 3 shows the average number of feeding visits made by the male on Nest Nos. 1, 2 and 3. On an average, the male made 2.5 visits per hour. No feeding was observed during heavy rain, as the wet male had to cling strenuously on to the nest to feed the nestling and female. Invariably maximum feeding was done during morning hours (Fig. 3). Food of the hornbill mostly constitutes of large drupes, wild fig, and berries; also insects, lizards and small animals. Nine species of fruits were identified: Caryota mitis , Mystica andamanica , Artocarpus chaplasha , Delinea indica , Sideroxylon longipetiolatum , Ficus scandens , F. glomerata , an unidentified Ficus species and Syzigium cuminii. Number of insertions per visit by the male varied with the size of the fruit, 2-77 insertions were recorded on Nest No. 1. However, mean numbers of insertions was x = 23.5 ±18.7, n = 32. Similarly, on Nest No. 2, 1-40 insertions per visit were recorded, while mean number of fruits fed was x = 15.4 ±11.6, n = 32. Total time spent by the males on Nest No. 1 ranged between 1 and 11 minutes. However, the mean time spent per visit was x = 1 5.4 ±4.37, n = 32. Similarly, the range of total time spent on Nest No. 2 was from 0.5 to 7 min, while mean time spent was x = 2.81 ±1.6, n = 32. Once the feeding was over, the male would clean its beak on the branch a few times, and often preen for a while before flying away. Interactions with other species : On three occasions, we observed 4-5 hombills mobbing the white-bellied sea-eagle Haliaeetus leucogaster and chasing it from tree to tree. No apparent inter- or intra-specific competition for nesting sites was recorded. Alexandrine w 00 > (0 1— 3 I— U C O ”3 O co 3 X .3 ■G S a a, L-4 O CO La £ c3 X o o 4-4 O o c ci CO <5 be a §3 a •*»*. I 3 a a a, _ QJ O c Cl co CO o O NO IT) CO •*— » 4—1 o o On co 4-1 ■*-* CO (N OO 1 *“H 1 1 OO CO »T) — C (N Tf rj- —a ~a (N SO T3 3 fc co oo i — > -a -<£)000 is > 3 S l- *■" B g ° o D O Cl co P CO *- ;o 3 2 is ~ G p O • ±3 CO >% p CO CO JD 13 o CO ^ D o 3 c & La X G D o "O 4-4 .O 3 O Q- . — - — a • — — r i DCQDCQh J D co 13 S o 2 co t/J i 1> d o 13 c c o • — ■ — CO 13 13 2 i_ u- C 0 0 3 3 t3 2 *— J >— 3 Ch CO CO O O 3 3 O O CO CO 3 B £ > o o " O CL o o La La CU Cl 484 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002 Table 2: Comparison of selected morphometric characters of Puntius based on literature sources NEW DESCRIPTIONS £ •2 ia § & a; dS > o c cL t/5 -?> be s; I cu c- r-~ o O r~- O o o o o o o' o o o o o m m —1 vf «n l—1 — 1 4 — r~~ rn © o rn On C?N VO oo VO rn o © rn — i — 1 o vd m vd rn o mi rn in mi — ' o in o — mi 4 4 oo X oo mi n (N o 4 4 rn vd (N O — — 4 VO ■ m o vq rn VO x o X) c 4> e s, x to c JD "O c3 •a Ml E T3 c» cd — aj 2 4-1 a O C X OX) B « •a >. Jr •a iS o ^ X) b 4-1 CO o X & © a> s« a ^ <*5 •o ^ cd .fd > x D a, *© « o O o *© X 4- Cd O *o r» Cd t: « OX) r© c — 4-i X O 00 a> S3 x c IG & 3 O E 4-i O £ -8 c/5 ~ 4- 4— i O O XX- So tog C C 3 © B cd *«> "5 "ed &•£ ^ o r-- VO vd o o o o I o o o o m m <3 rn rn o <4 rn (N m m * i ■ o o o m o o o o o o O rn mi o mi cd mi O rn rN rn o s 5 oo m vd 4 rn 4 vd m o O o 00 in cd B v o vo in vq p °® m vo oo o o p Ov c - O OO 4 4 4h O t— 4) © E cd - 10 © >N OX) O B 00 i— i Aquatic Marsh Terrestrial (mesic) -> Xeric (Kangas 1990). Phenology (Kumar et al. 1980, Reich and Borchert 1982, Vijay 1997, 2000, Singh et al. 1998) of wetland plants comprising seed germination (Sg), vegetative growth (Vg), flowering (FI), fruiting (Fr), seed maturation (Sm) and death (D) pattern were observed and recorded. Phenodynamics of some taxa are described. Study Sites: The central Aravalli region of Ajmer was the study area. The Aravallis run about 692 km, northeast (near Delhi) to southeast of Gujarat (Palampur). The central Aravalli covers the entire Ajmer region (26° 25'-26° 35' N, 74° 37-74° 42' E; 481.89 m above msl). The three study sites are Anasagar, Boodha-Pushkar and Lohagal wetland (Fig. 1). Materia! and Methods: Vegetation analysis was done during 1997-2000. Field identifications were done with the help of extant Floras (Sharma 1958, Duthie 1903-20, Bhandari 1978, Cook 1996). Diphenyl ring was emphasized for phenological studies as indicated below: Feb Mar Jun Jul Dec Nov Oct Sep Observations: In all, 102 species belonging to 33 families, comprising grasses, sedges, non leguminous, leguminous plants and lower plants, were recorded in the study area. As the water recedes, the marshy vegetation shows an interesting zonal distribution. Fig. 2 reveals that the aquatic phase starts in July, wetland stage extends from November to February. The dry phase, beginning at the end 74° 74° November December 26 c January October September m’rmyrn iwmrn) rm;rrmr rrm-m') ?rrm r/rmry’ • * \y wr rrtrr. ■ ----- - - v rm vtwv\ February ivijjPHrrfyri' rrrnrrty r/rm rrLw* 03 tm SgVg SgVg 2. In 1997 3. In 1998 Vo 7,*Se Flpr m m _£r oo 4. In 1999 ssXs 2yg So D ^ r Fr"l Flfr' 1. In normal condition oo Abbreviations: Sg-Seed germination; Vg- Vegetative growth; FI-Flowering; Fr-Fruiting; Sm-Seed maturation; D-Death; • - Water Flooding Fig. 4: A-D Phenodynamics of some Wetland plants JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002 579 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES C. Cressa cretica - Under normal conditions, phenology starts from November, but in 1 997 germination did not occur the whole year due to flooding and continued till March 1998. In April 1998, seed germination and vegetative growth started, but flowering and fruiting did not occur due to flooding till December 1998. Seed germination began only in January 1999 (Fig. 4C) D. Ammania baccifera - Characterized by various colours during growth with seed germination in August. In 1997, however, no seed germination occurred in August and this continued till April of the next year, i.e. 1998. Germination took place in May 1998, and reflooding in July 1998 permitted the plant to reappear in November 1998 (Fig. 4D). Discussion: Wetlands are highly productive ecosystems with prolific biodiversity. They are significant in terms of water purification, microclimatic regulation, locking and storing nutrients, recharging of water table and as habitats for wildlife. The extant Refer *Anon. (1994): Wetland mapping. In: Wetlands of India (Project Report), (Eds.: Garg, J.K., T.S. Singh and T. V.R. Murthy). Pp. 240. Space Applications Centre (ISRO), Ahmedabad. Bhandari, M.M. (1978): Flora of the Indian Desert. MPS Repros, Jodhpur. Pp. 1-435 (2nd edn, 1990). Bhardwaja, T.N. (1980): Recent advances in our knowledge of the water fern Marsilea. In: Aspects of Plant Sciences III. (Ed.: Bir, S.S.) Today & Tomorrow’s Publ., New Delhi, pp. 39-62. Bhardwaja, T.N. & C.B. Gena (1987): Status survey of pteridophytic flora of Rajasthan with special reference to endangered ferns and fern allies. Indian fern Journal 4: 47-50. Biswas, K. & C.C. Calder (1937): Handbook of common water and Marsh plants of India and Burma. Govt, of India Publication, Delhi. Bohmer, H.J. & Michael Richter (1997): Regeneration of plant communities - An attempt to establish a typology and azonal system. Plant research and development 45: 74-88. Inst, of Scientific Cooperation. Tubingen Federal Republic of degradation of wetlands calls for intensive ameliorative measures. Striking pheno-variations and pheno-rhythms were observed, indicating the impact of microclimatic factors. Cultivation, human activities and land encroachment for building purposes poses various threats to wetland vegetation. Ponds, puddles and water reservoirs supporting these wetland plants are gradually being eliminated in the study area, due to cultivation at Boodha Pushkar, urbanisation, waste disposal and water pollution due to professional washing at Anasagar, and growth of Prosopis chilensis at Lohagal site. This calls for a concerted effort to save wetland vegetation in and around cities like Ajmer. We hope that this study will succeed in drawing attention to this need. October 1,2001 S.K. VIJAY T.N. BHARDWAJA Department of Botany M.D.S. University, Ajmer 305 001, Rajasthan, India. E N C E S Germany. Cook, C.D.K. ( 1 996): Aquatic and wetland plants of India. Oxford University Press. Delhi, pp. 385. Duthie, S. (1903-20): Flora of upper Gangetic plain. Vol. I-III, Repr. Ed. 1960. Botanical Survey of India, Howrah. Gopal, B. (1986a): Vegetation dynamics in temporary and shallow fresh water habitats. Aquat. Bot. 23: 39 1 - 396. Gopal, B. (1986b): Wetland Ecosystem: An appraisal. Veroff. Geobot. Inst. ETH. Stiftung. Rubel. Zurich. Pp. 362-371. Kangas, PC. (1990): Long-term development of Forested wetlands, Ecosystem of the world 15. Elsevier Science Pub. Amsterdam, Netherlands. *Kumar, A., P. Kumar & M.C. Joshi (1980): Phenological observations on herbaceous vegetation around Pilani. Indian J. Ecol. 7: 84-87. Mall, L.P. (1961): Ecology of drying ponds. J. Indian bot. Soc. 40: 139. *Misra, R. (1946): A study in the ecology of low lying lands. Indian Ecol. 1: 45-52. 580 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES ♦Ratnam, B.V. & M.C. Joshi (1952): An ecological study of vegetation near about a temporary pond in Pilani. Proc. Rajasthan Acad. Sci. 3: 45-59. ♦Reich, P.B. & R. Borchert (1982): Phenology and ecophysiology of the tropical tree, Tabebuia neochrysantha (Bignoniaceae). Ecology : 294-299. Sharma, K.C. & R. Sharma (1992): Trophic evaluation of an urban wetland of Ajmer, Rajasthan. Inteclo’s IV International Wetland Conference, Ohio State University, Columbus. Ohio, USA. Sharma, Renu & K.C. Sharma (1992): Floristic diversity of wetlands of Aravalli ecosystem, a survey of Anasagar lake of Ajmer. National Seminar on Ecological Restoration of Aravalli Hill ecosystems of Rajathan at Ajmer. DST, Jaipur. Sharma, V.S. (1958): The flora of Ajmer. J. Bombay nat. Hist.Soc. 55: 129-141. ♦Singh, A., P.K. Ralhan & R.P. Singh (1998): Phenological studies on conditioned stocks of Shisham (Dalbergia sissoo Roxb.). Indian J. Ecology 26(1): 114-122. Vuay, S.K. ( 1 997): Phenological observations of some rare vascular plants of Pushkar Valley, Ajmer (Abstract). Proc. of Nat. Conf. on Environment & Ecodevelopment of Pushkar Valley of Rajasthan. Pp. 11. Vijay, S.K. (1999): Ecomorphological investigations of wetland plants in selected sites of Ajmer with special reference to Amphibiousness (Abstract). International Conference on Tropical Aquatic Ecosystems, Nainital, India. Pp. 137. Vijay, S.K. (2000): Phenological observations of marshy wetland flora of Ajmer, Central Rajasthan (Abstract). Proc. of the 87th ISCA Pune. Pp 74-76. Vyas, L.N. (1964): A study of hydrophytes and marsh plants of Alwar and environs. JIBS 43: 1 7-30. Zutshi, D.P. (1975): Association of macrophytic vegetation of Kashmir lakes. Vegetatio 30: 61-62. ♦Not seen in original. 50. TYPHONIUM HORSFIELDII (MIQ.) STEENIS, FAMILY ARACEAE, A NEW REPORT FOR INDIA ( With one text-figure ) While revising the Indian Araceae, it was found that a specimen at CAL which had been collected in Mizoram by B. Godfrey and labelled as Arisaema tortuosum (Wall.) Schott var. curvatum (Roxb.) Engl, had been later determined as Typhonium horsfieldii (Miq.) Steenis by Nicolson, a well-known aroidologist. A perusal of literature reveals that this species is confined to Java in Indonesia. As the specimen in question is from Mizoram, the species becomes an addition to the flora of India. A detailed description and an illustration (Fig. 1) are provided to facilitate identification. Typhonium horsfieldii (Miq.) Steenis in Bull. Jard. Bot., Buitenzorg Ser. 3,17: 403. 1948; Backer & Bakh. f., FI. Java 3: 123. 1968. Sauromatum horsfieldii Miq., FI. Ind.-Bat. 3: 196. 1856; Engl, in A. DC., Monogr. Phan. 2: 571. 1879. Type: Java(U). Typhonium fallax'N.E. Br. in J. Linn. Soc., Bot. 18: 260. 1880; Engl., Pflanzenr. (IV. 23 F) 73: 121, f. 17 F - N. 1920. Heterostalis pedata Schott in Ann. Mus. Bot. Lugduno-Batavum 1: 278. 1864, non Typhonium pedatum Schott 1857. Typhonium pedatum sensu Engl, in A. DC., Monogr. Phan. 2: 613. 1879, non Schott 1857. Cormous herb; corm c. 0.9 x 0.8 cm, subglobose. Cataphylls 3-3.5 cm long. Leaves pedatisect; petioles 10-40 cm long, sheathing; leaflets 7-9, sessile, lanceolate, acuminate; middle leaflet 5. 5-7. 5 x 0.6-1 cm; lateral leaflets gradually becoming smaller, 1.2-5. 5 cm long. Peduncle 4-20 cm long; spathe 8-10 cm long; tube 2-3 cm long, oblong, convolute; limb 6-7 x 2-2.5 cm, oblong-lanceolate, cuspidate. Spadix 5.8-10 cm long. Pistillate-flowered portion 0.2-1 x 0.4-0. 6 cm. Neuter-flowered portion 2-2.2 cm long followed by stipe c. 7 mm long. Staminate-flowered portion 0.7-1 x c. 0.3 cm, terminating in a stipitate appendix. Pistillate flowers c. 1 x 0.5-0. 8 mm, dense; ovary ovoid, 2-ovuled; stigma capitate, coronate. Neuters JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002 581 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES ,'3 2 mm Fig. 1: Typhonium horsfieldii (Miq.) Steenis; A. Habit, B. Spadix, C Pistillate flower, D. Staminate flower, E. Neuters 582 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES elongate-clavate at base, 1 .5-2.5 mm iong, linear above, 4-5.5 mm iong. Staminate flowers c. 0.5 mm long; anthers broadly ovate, shortly stalked, dehiscing by apical slits. Appendix 2.2- 5 cm long, cylindrical. FL & Fr.: Not known. Distribution: india: Mizoram, world: Indonesia (Java). Specimen examined: mizoram: Lushai hills, Aijal, B. Godfrey 527 (CAL). Acknowledgements KS thanks the Director, Botanical Survey of India, Kolkata, for a Senior Research Fellowship. Mrs. C. R Malathi, Sci. Asst., made the figure. March 29, 2001 K. SASIKALA E. VAJRAVELU R DANIEL Botanical Survey of India, Southern Circle, TNAU Campus, Lawley Road P.O., Coimbatore 641 003, Tamil Nadu, India. 51. LECTOTYPIFICATION OF POLYSTICHUM SQUARROSUM (D. DON) FEE VAR. BEDDOMEI MANICKAM & RAJKUMAR, FAMILY DRYOPTERIDACEAE Polystichum squarrosum (D. Don) Fee is a tropical fern with morphological diversity and taxonomic complexity. Rajkumar and Manickam (Pak. J. Biol , 2(3): 755-758, 1999), while analysing the spore morphology of Polystichum squarrosum have observed two distinct types of perine and have construed them as two varieties. The specimen with winged smooth hyaline perine have been placed under var. beddomei and the crescent dark brown penned specimens have been placed under var. squarrosum . Of 20 specimens, they have found 5 specimens (XCH 241, 350, 419, 897, 922) to be var. beddomei and the rest (XCH 9, 29 1 , 307, 3 19, 320, 415, 434, 443, 470, 56 1 , 684, 7 1 3, 738, 824, 867) to be var. squarrosum. Unfortunately, var. beddomei has not been typified. Hence, as per the ICBN rules it is lectotyped here. The lectotype has been selected from the specimens preserved at St. Xavier’s College Herbarium (XCH), Palayamkottai. Polystichum squarrosum (D.Don) Fee var. beddomei Manickam & Rajkumar, Pak. J. Biol. Sci, 2(3): 755-758, Fig. 3a (1999). Lectotype: India, Tamil Nadu, Nilgiri Hills, Thottabetta (2,650 m), 24.x. 1991, Manickam, XCH 419. Acknowledgement I thank the Department of Science & Technology for financial assistance through the Young Scientist Award scheme (HR/SX/B-21/ 97). July 16, 2001 S. DOMINIC RAJKUMAR SPK Centre for Environmental Sciences, Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Alwarkurichi 627 412, Tamil Nadu, India, 52. A COMPARATIVE STUDY ON THE REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY OF THREE INDIAN SPECIES OF MARSILEA A comparative reproductive biological study was conducted on three Indian Mars ilea species of the coromandeliana group. The species having monomorphic megaspores showed microsporal aberrations, while those with megaspora! aberrations had normal microspores. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002 583 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Release mechanism of the mega and microspores from their sporangia was different in these species. Marsilea L., Family Marsileaceae, is a thoroughly investigated genus of amphibious pteridophytes. It is the most versatile fern genus morphologically and ecologically, while its reproductive biology exhibits a close correspondence to its morphological and ecological plasticity, unlike the other two genera of the family — Regnellidium and Pilularia — as well as other heterosporous aquatic ferns. The different habitats and ecological adaptations from aquatic to sub-terrestrial, terrestrial to extreme xerophyte fully concurs with a wide spectrum of reproductive mechanism (Bhardwaja 1966). Gupta (1962) and Bhardwaja (1980) have published facets of the biology of this genus. Three Indian species of Marsilea L., namely Marsilea coromandeliana Willd., M. kedarmalii (Bhardwaja et al. 1994) and M. shashibalii (Bhardwaja et al. 2000) were selected for this study. Ripe sporocarps of the species were collected. Five sporocarps of each species were scarified and kept for germination in a petri dish containing tap water. The various stages of sexual reproduction in the three species of Marsilea from sorophore extrusion to sporeling formation were constantly monitored with a stereoscopic binocular microscope. For sporal studies, ripe sporocarps of these plants were boiled in a 5% aqueous solution of potassium hydroxide (KOH) and allowed to cool to burst open the sporocarps. The sori from these ruptured sporocarps were squashed in acetocarmine. The sporangial contents were classified as per Loyal and Kumar (1979). Spore morphology of all the three species of Marsilea L. shows that the megaspores are somewhat longer than broad, ellipsoidal or ovate in general outline. Megaspores of Marsilea coromandeliana Willd. exhibit polymorphism, which has not been found in the other two closely allied species — M. kedarmalii Bhardwaja et al and M. shashibalii Bhardwaja et al . Megaspore polymorphism in Marsilea coromandeliana Willd. matches that of Isoetes coromandeliana L. , another heterosporous pteridophyte (Gena 1980). It was observed that while normal monomorphic megaspores are found in M. kedarmalii Bhardwaja et al. and M. shashibalii Bhardwaja et al. their microsporangia exhibit microsporangial aberrations. Along with the normal large and small microspores within the microsporangium, aberrant microspores were found in the microsporangia. [Microsporangium possesses normal microspores, monads and deformed spores.] This has also been reported earlier in M. hirsuta R.Br. by Feller (1953) and in M. minuta L. by Loyal and Kumar (1979). M. coromandeliana Willd. which is known to have polymorphic megaspores, showed normal monomorphic microspores. All the 64 microspores present in a microsporangium of M. coromandeliana Willd. were found to be of uniform size and shape. Detailed observations regarding spore liberation, development of male and female gametes and sporeling formation have been recorded in Tables 1 and 2. Interspecific differences regarding these aspects of reproductive biology were seen. Gupta and Bhardwaja (1956) have done considerable research on the morphology and systematics of the genus Marsilea L. Gupta (1962) has studied variations in size and shape of the vegetative organs and differentiation into xerophytic and hydrophytic forms in his monograph on Marsilea L. The occurrence of microsporangia lacking normal microspores may be attributed to the fact that increasing dryness of the habitat leads to the formation of larger number of megasporangia (Bhardwaja 1966). The available nutrition is thus utilized maximally in the formation of megaspores, and smaller 584 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Table 1: Comparison of gametophyte and sporeling development in the three Marsilea species S. No Parameters Marsilea coromande liana Marsilea kedarmalii Marsilea shashibalii 1 Extrusion of sorophore (hr) 2 1 1.5 2 Length of sorophore (cm) 2.5-3 3-5 2-2.5 3 No. of sori / sporocarp 8-12 10-15 7-11 4 No. of microspores/microsporangium 64 64(16-24 64(12-24 5 % No. megaspores/sporocarp 70 normal spores) 91 normal spores) 54 6 (Average) Release of megaspores (hr) 8-10 2-3 6-8 7 Sporal morphology a) Microspores Normal Aberrant Absent b) Megaspores Aberrant Normal Normal 8 Release of microspores (hr) 10-12 3-4 6-8 9 Bursting of microspores (hr) 12-14 6-10 9-12 10 Female gametophyte development (hr) 12-14 10-12 12-14 11 (Formation of green apical mound) Spore germination % a) Microspores 60 70 65 b) Megaspores 42.4 46.5 32.4 12 Dark germination % a) Microspores Absent 40 25 b) Megaspores Absent 20 Absent 13 Rhizoids on developing female gametophyte Absent Present Present 14 Development of archegonium (hr) 18-20 16-18 18-20 15 Liberation of antherozoids (hr) 20-22 18-20 20-22 16 Sporeling initiation (hr) 38-40 26-32 34-38 17 First leaf initiation (hr) 64-70 48-52 54-58 18 First root initiation (hr) 72-80 58-68 72-78 19 Development of sporophyte from isolated megaspore Nil 14.2% Nil Table 2: Sporocarp contents of three Marsilea species SI. No. Parameters Marsilea coromande liana Marsilea kedarmalii Marsilea shashibalii 1 N umber of Sori/ sporocarp Range 8-12 10-15 7-11 Average 10 13 9 2 Number of Megaspores/ sorus Range 5-7 4-9 4-9 Average 7 7 6 3 Number of Microsporangia/ sorus Range 5-14 5-10 4-7 Average 10 8 6 4 N umber of Microspores/ Microsporangium 64 (no aberrant spores) 64(16-24 normal spores) 64(12-24 normal spores) JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002 585 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES numbers of normal microspores, and aberrant spores of various types are thus more frequent. Both increasing dryness and temperature are responsible for spore variation in Marsilea L. (Shattuck 1910). Aspects of heterospory, specially microsporal aberrations, so frequent in some species of Marsilea L., have been studied in detail by Bhardwaja and Wadhwani (1984), and Bhardwaja (1986). Sen (1989), Soni (1989) and Wadhwani (1989) have discussed apogamy and parthenogenetic development of sporelings in Marsilea L. and have correlated microsporal aberrations with apogamous and parthenogenetic sporeling formation. Refer Bhardwaja, T.N. (1966): Sporal aberrations in relation to leaf morphology in water fern Marsilea. Nova Hedwigia 12: 405-415. Bhardwaja, T.N. (1980): Recent advances in our knowledge of the water fern Marsilea. In: Aspects of Plant Science, HI. Pp. 39-62. Bhardwaja, T.N. (1986): Microsporal aberrations in the heterosporous fern Family Marsileaceae. J. Indian Bot. Soc. 65 (supplement): 39. Bhardwaja, T.N. & C. Wadhwani (1984): Aspects of heterospory in the genus Marsilea. International symp. towards understanding the Biology of Pteridophytes, Chandigarh, pp. 52-54. Bhardwaja, T.N., M.LC. D’ Souza & C.B. Gena. (1994): A new species of Marsilea L. from India. Indian Fern Journal. II: 49-52. Bhardwaja, T.N., T.S. Joseph & C.B. Gena (2000): A new species of Marsilea L. from Rajasthan, India. Indian Fern Journal. Feller, M.J. (1953): Etudes sur les Hydropteridales II. Sporocarps et sporogenese chez Marsilea kirsuta R.Br. La Cellule 55: 307-377. Gena, C.B. (1980): Cytotaxonomical morphological and experimental studies of genus Isoetes L. in Rajasthan. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Rajasthan, Jaipur. Acknowledgement We thank the University Grants Commission, New Delhi for financial assistance. December 19, 2001 T.S. JOSEPH* C.B. GENA Department of Botany, Government College, Ajmer, Rajasthan, India. * Address for correspondence: Aromatic and Medicinal Plants Research Stn, Kerala Agricultural University, Odakkali, Asamannoor, P.O. Ernakulam district 683 549, Kerala, India. ENC ES Gupta, K.M. (1962): Marsilea — Botanical monograph. CSIR, New Delhi. Pp. 1-113. Gupta, K.M. & T.N. Bhardwaja ( 1 956): Indian Marsileas: their morphology and systematics. 1. Marsilea aegyptiaca Wi lid. with remarks on present systematic position of Indian species. J. Bombay, nat. Hist. Soc. 53: 423. Loyal, D.S. & K. Kumar (1979): Cytological observations on some natural populations of Marsilea minuta L,, their reproductive mechanisms and evolutionary features. In: Recent researches in plant sciences, (Ed.: Bir, S.S.). Pp. 229-236. Sen, S. (1989): Apogamy/Parthenogenesis in Marsilea — an analytical study. International symp. on present and future Perspectives in Pteridology, Jaipur. Pp. 58. Shattuck, C.H. (1910): The origin of heterospory in Marsilea. Bot. Gaz. 49: 19-40. Soni, K.C. ( 1 989): Some aspects of the biology of Marsilea of western Rajasthan. International symp. on present and future Perspectives in Pteridology, Jaipur. Pp. 144-145. Wadhwani, C. (1989): Microsporal/sporal variations in some species of the heterosporous fern Marsilea L. International symp. on present and future Perspectives in Pteridology, Jaipur. 586 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 53. A COMPARATIVE ECO-ANATOMICAL STUDY ON THE RHIZOME OF THREE INDIAN MARSILEAS (With one plate) A study was conducted on the variations in the Rhizomes of the three Indian species of Marsilea L. namely, Marsilea coromandeliana Willd., Marsilea kedarmalii (Bhardwaja et al. 1994) and Marsilea shashibalii (Bhardwaja et al. 2000). Marsilea coromandeliana Willd. and M. kedarmalii Bhardwaja et al were collected from the southern states of Kerala and Tamil Nadu respectively. M. shashibalii Bhardwaja et al was collected from Kota district, Rajasthan and studied to investigate the eco-anatomical variations present among the three species. Genus Marsilea L., well known for its amphibious nature, flourishes with equal ease in aquatic as well as in strongly xeric habitats (Bhardwaja 1966). It is, therefore, possible to categorise its various species as xeromorphic, amphibious or hydromorphic forms. Anatomical studies of ferns and fern allies, with special reference to stelar system, have been extensively investigated during the last century. Pande ( 1 923) reported the presence of dictyostele in the tubers of Marsilea erosa L. and oil as the storage product in its cortex. But a critical study of this genus with special reference to land and water forms has not been made so far. Land and water forms of all the three species were cultivated in the botanical garden of the Government College, Ajmer, Rajasthan. Different cultural practices were followed for land and water forms (D’ Souza et al. 1 993). Land fonns were raised in pots, and given a measured quantity of water on alternate days. Water forms were raised in pots placed under water in a tank. Hand and microtome sections of the rhizome were taken using the Tertiary Butyl Alcohol (TBA) Method for dehydration followed by paraffin embedding. 10-15 mm thick sections were stained using Safranine-Fast Green and mounted in DPX. The study shows that there are a number of significant anatomical variations in the land and water forms of the three species of Marsilea. The epidennis is thin-walled in the water forms, whereas it is thick in the land forms. Among the three species, M. shashibalii Bhardwaja et al. has the thickest epidermal wall The inner cortex is parenchymatous in the water forms, whereas it is sclerenchymatous in the land forms. All the water forms have abundant aerenchyma in the outer cortex, compared to the land forms. In the land form of M shashibalii Bhardwaja et al , aerenchyma is nearly absent. The inner cortical cells of the land forms contained starch grains. These were abundant in the land form of M. coromandeliana Willd., but absent in the water forms of all the three species. The stelar perimeter of the rhizome in the land forms is comparatively larger than that of water forms. The Signification of xylem elements reveals differences in land and water forms. The Sand forms having thicker lignin deposition, while water forms have poor Signification of tracheides. The pith in land forms is highly sclerotic, particularly in M. coromandeliana Willd. The pith of all the water forms was characterised by the presence of tannin cells. Tannin is known to provide protection against microbial growth in water plants (Farkas and Kirlay 1962). Thus, Marsilea L. shows adaptation to a wide range of habitats from aquatic to subterrestrial, terrestrial and xerophytic. Gupta (1962) stated that water is an important ecological factor in bringing about variations in size and shape of vegetative organs, and has probably led to the differentiation in terrestrial JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002 587 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES and hydrophytic forms in Marsilea L. Allsopp (1963) observed that land and water forms show striking phytochemical differences. Wadhwani (1983) reported that land and water forms of M. diffusa Lepr. respond differently to the same cultural regime. Water forms of Marsilea L. are reported as more labile to hypothermia than land forms (Joseph 1998). In this study, all the three species of Marsilea L. exhibited significant morphological variations between land and water forms. Evidently, the amount of water available had a great impact on the morphological and anatomical differences in land and water forms. Acknowledgement We thank the University Grants Commission, New Delhi for financial assistance. December 1 9, 200 1 T.S. JOSEPH* C. B. GENA Department of Botany, Government College, Ajmer, Rajasthan, India. * Address for correspondence: Aromatic and Medicinal Plants Research Stn, Kerala Agricultural University, Odakkali, Asamannoor, P. O. Ernakulam district 683 549, Kerala, India. Refer Allsopp, A. (1963): Morphogenesis in Marsilea. J. Linn. Soc. (Bot.). 58: 417-427. Bhardwaja, T.N. ( 1 966): Sporal aberrations in relation to leaf morphology in the water fern Marsilea. Nova Hedwigia 12: 405-415. Bhardwaja, T.N., M.I.C. D’Souza & C.B. Gena (1994): A new species of Marsilea L. from India. India Fern Journal 11: 49-52 Bhardwaja, T.N,, T.S. Joseph & C.B. Gena (2000): A new species of Marsilea L. from Rajasthan, India. India Fern Journal. D’Souza, M.I.C., T.N. Bhardwaja & C.B. Gena (1993): A comparative study of vascular tissue of some Marsilea species-1 Xylem. Indian Fern Journal 10: 92-97. e n c e s Farkas, G.L. & Z. Kirlay (1962): Role of phenolic compounds in the physiology of plant diseases and disease resistance. Phytopath. 44: 105-150. Gupta, K.M. (1962): Marsilea - Botanical monograph. CSIR, New Delhi. 1-113. Joseph, T.S. (1998): The effect of hyperthermia on the ecophysiological forms of south Indian Marsileas. S.B. Academic review VII (2): 77-81. Pande, S.S. (1923): Some observations on the biology of Marsilea. Proc. Lahore Phil. Soc. 4: 1-28. Wadhwani, C. (1983): Study of microsporal aberrations and parthenogenesis in some species of heterosporous fern Marsilea L. Ph.D. thesis, University of Rajasthan, Jaipur. 588 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Joseph, T.S. and C.B. Gena: Marsilea spp. Plate 1 Fig. 1: Magnified view of rhizome: T. S. of M. coromandeliana Willd. showing cell wall thickness, starch grains and aerenchyma (Land form) Fig. 2: Magnified view of rhizome: T. S. of M. kedarmalii Bhardwaja et al. showing cell wall thickness and aerenchyma (Land form) JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(3), DEC. 2002 589 ERRATA In Vol. 99(2), August 2002 Page 300 for Miscellaneous Note No. 13. read the title as: SIGHTING OF A RUFOUS-NECKED STINT CALIDRIS RUFICOLLIS (PALLAS) ON INDIA'S WEST COAST Page 348 for Miscellaneous Note No. 34, second column, 4th line For: Wynter-Blyth (1957) does not mention Alpinia calcarata Rose., occurrence and successful rearing of Grass Demon Udaspes folus Cram., and Restricted Demon Notocrypta curvifascia Felder & Felder on Alpinia calcarata confirms it as a new larval food plant for both the species. Read: Wynter-Blyth (1957) does not mention Alpinia calcarata Rose., as the food plant of both Grass Demon Udaspes folus Cram., and Restricted Demon Notocrypta curvifascia Felder & Felder. The occurrence and successful rearing of Grass Demon Udaspes folus Cram., and Restricted Demon Notocrypta curvifascia Felder & Felder on Alpinia calcarata confirms it as a new larval food plant for both the species. Page 379 for Miscellaneous Note No. 49, Table 1 For: SI. No. Latin name Local name Family 1. Abrus precatorius Linn. Ciianing(M) Malvaceae 19. Crotalaria mucronata Derv. Sen (H) — Papaveraceae 20. Dalbergia stipulacea Roxb. — Papilionaceae Read: SI. No. Latin name Local name Family 1. Abrus precatorius Linn. Chaning(M) Fabaceae 19. Crotalaria mucronata Derv. Sen (H) — Fabaceae 20. Dalbergia stipulacea Roxb. — Fabaceae Printed by Bro. Leo at St. Francis Industrial Training Institute, Borivli, Mumbai 400 103 and published on February 28, 2003, by J.C. Daniel for Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House, Dr. Salim Ali Chowk, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Mumbai 400 023. THE SOCIETY'S PUBLICATIONS (Price for members) The Book of Indian Animals, by S.H. 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Institutional Annual Member (a) Educational Institutions, Libraries, Schools, Colleges, Universities, Defence Institutes and Forest Dept, in India Rs. 50 Rs. 1,075 (including registered post charges) Free Free (b) Outside India and SAARC countries $2 $100 Free Free VI. Green Card Member: A special membership package wherein you can become a member and contribute to the conservation fund of the Society (Rs. 1,000/- and above, terms variable.) Donations to BNHS are exempt under Sections 80G and 35(l)(ii) of I.T. Act, 1961 Registered with the Registrar of Newspapers under RN 568: CONTENTS EDITORIAL 387 THE VERTICAL STRATIFICATION OF BIRDS IN MIXED SPECIES FLOCKS AT PARAMBIKULAM, SOUTH INDIA: A COMPARISON BETWEEN TWO HABITATS By V.V. Robin and Priya Davidar 389 ACTIVITY SCHEDULE AND HABITAT USE OF THE SLENDER LORIS LORIS TARDIGRADUS LYDEKKERIANUS By Sindhu Radhakrishna and Mewa Singh 400 PLANT SELECTION FOR NESTING BY OECOPHYLLA SMARAGDINA, HYMENOPTERA: FORMICIDAE: DO PHYSICAL FEATURES AFFECT THE CHOICE OF THE PLANT? By N. Sumithramma, A.R.V. Kumar, K. Chandrashekara and D. Rajagopal 408 STATUS OF BENGAL FLORICAN HOUBAROPSIS BENGALENSIS IN ROYAL BARDIA NATIONAL PARK, NEPAL ( With two text-figures) By Nabin Baral, Bijay Tamang and Nilesh Timilsina 413 ABUNDANCE AND DIVERSITY OF MOSS COMMUNITIES OF CHOPTA- TUNGANATH IN THE GARHWAL HIMALAYA ( With seven text-figures) By Hans Raj Negi 418 STATUS, ECOLOGY AND BEHAVIOUR OF NARCONDAM HORNBILL (ACEROS NARCONDAM1) IN NARCONDAM ISLAND, ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS, INDIA ( With three text-figures) By H.S.A. Yahya and Ashfaq Ahmed Zarri 434 NOTES ON NEW RECORDS OF HOOKTIP MOTHS, LEPIDOPTERA: DREPANIDAE, FROM THE KUMAON AND GARHWAL HIMALAYA By Peter Smetacek 446 REVISION OF FIVE KNOWN SPECIES OF FAMILY ASSAMIDAE, LANIATORES: OPILIONES, ON THE BASIS OF TYPES AND IDENTIFIED SPECIMENS DEPOSITED IN THE ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA NATIONAL COLLECTION, BY ROEWER (1911-1939) ( With forty-five text-figures) By D.B. Bastawade 455 CLADOCERAN FAUNA OF MALDA DISTRICT, WEST BENGAL By S.V.A. Chandrasekhar and Tapas Chatterjee 467 NEW DESCRIPTIONS 471 REVIEWS 499 I MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 501 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION LIBRARIES 3 9088 012051439 Printed by Bro. Leo at St. Francis Industrial Training Institute, Borivli, Mumbai 400 103 and published by J.C. Daniel for Bombay Natural History Society, Hornbill House, Dr. Salim Ali Chowk, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Mumbai 400 023. website: www.bnhs.org; email: bnhs@bom4.vsnl.net.in