JOURNAL
OF THE
BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY
APRIL 2002
Vol. 99 (1)
BOARD OF EDITORS Editor
J.C. DANIEL
M.R. ALMEIDA M.K. CHANDRASHEKARAN B.F. CHHAPGAR R. GADAGKAR INDRANEIL DAS A.J.T. JOHNSINGH
AJITH KUMAR T.C. NARENDRAN A.R. RAHMANI J.S. SINGH R. WHITAKER
Assistant Editor GAYATRI WATTAL UGRA
INSTRUCTIONS TO CONTRIBUTORS
1 . Papers which have been published or have been offered for publication elsewhere should not be submitted.
2. Papers should be submitted in duplicate, typed double space. Preferably an additional copy should be submitted on a floppy diskette (3.5") using MS Word.
3. Trinomials referring to subspecies should only be used where identification has been authentically established by comparison of specimens actually collected.
4. Photographs for reproduction must be clear, with good contrast. Prints should be at least 9 x 12 cm and on glossy glazed paper. Text-figures, line drawings and maps should be in Indian ink, preferably on tracing paper.
5. References to literature should be placed at the end of the paper, alphabetically arranged under author’s name, with the abridged titles of journals or periodicals in italics and titles of books or papers in roman type, thus:
Aluri, Raju J.S. & C. Subha Reddi (1995): Ecology of the pollination in two cat-mint species. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 92(1): 63-66.
Prater, S.H. (1948): The Book of Indian Animals. Bombay Natural History Society, Mumbai, pp. 35-48.
6. Each paper should be accompanied by an abstract, normally not exceeding 200 words, and 6-8 key words. Key words should include the scientific names of important species discussed.
7. 25 reprints will be supplied free of cost to authors of main articles and new descriptions. Authors of miscellaneous notes, will be sent a free copy of the Journal.
8. The editors reserve the right, other things being equal, to publish a member’s contribution earlier than a non-member’s.
9. For the standardised common and scientific names of the birds of the Indian subcontinent refer to Buceros Vol. 6, No. 1 (2001).
Hornbill House,
Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Mumbai 400 023.
Editors,
Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society
VOLUME 99 (1): APRIL 2002
^S\\thso
l
Date of Publication: 1-4-2002
CONTENTS
EDITORIAL
THE HONEY BEES OF INDIA, HYMENOPTERA: APIDAE ( With one text-figure )
By Michael S. Engel
STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION OF TWO BIRD COMMUNITIES IN THE SOUTHERN WESTERN GHATS
( With five text-figures )
By E.A. Jayson and D.N. Mathew 8
INDIVIDUAL VARIATION AND SEXUAL DIMORPHISM IN THAMNOECHA UNIFORMIS (BUTLER 1875), LEPIDOPTERA: SPHINGIDAE
By Peter Smetacek 26
PETA JJRISTA NOBILIS SINGHE1 — FIRST RECORD IN INDIA AND A NOTE ON ITS TAXONOMY ( With one text- figure)
By Anwaruddin Choudhury 30
THE INITIAL COLONISATION OF THE YAMUNA FLOOD PLAIN BY THE SIND SPARROW PASSER PYRRHONOTUS ( With two text-figures and one plate )
By Bill Harvey and Suresh C. Sharma 35
EDIBLE OYSTERS OF THE GENUS CRASSOSTREA SACCO 1897, ALONG THE RATNAGIRI COAST, MAHARASHTRA, INDIA
By M.S. Sawant and A.M. Ranade 44
FRESHWATER FISHES OF SOUTHERN KERALA WITH NOTES ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF ENDEMIC AND ENDANGERED SPECIES
By K. Raju Thomas, M. John George and C.R. Biju 47
CHARACTERISTICS AND SIGNIFICANCE OF SONG IN FEMALE ORIENTAL MAGPIE- ROBIN, COPSYCHUSSA V LARIS ( With one text-figure )
By Anil Kumar and Dinesh Bhatt 54
PSYCHOPHJLY AND EVOLUTIONARY CONSIDERATIONS OF CADABA FRUTICOSA L. (CAPPARACEAE)
By J.S.R. Aluri and S.P. Rao 59
A DICHOTOMOUS KEY FOR FIELD IDENTIFICATION OF THE ORDERS OF INDIAN DIPLOPODA
( With ten text-figures)
By Kubra Bano 64
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
STUDIES ON OXYSYCHUS DELUCCHI, HYMENOPTERA: CHALCIDOIDEA: PTEROMALIDAE, FROM INDIA WITH THE DESCRIPTION OF A NEW SPECIES ( With fifteen text-figures)
By P.M. Sureshan and T.C. Narendran 72
A NEW GENUS AND TWO NEW SPECIES OF ARCTIINAE, ARCTIIDAE: LEPIDOPTERA FROM INDIA (With eighteen text-figures)
By Jagbir S. Kirti and Amritpal S. Kaleka 79
A NEW BARILINE CYPRINID FISH OF THE GENUS BARILIUS HAMILTON, FROM MANIPUR, INDIA ( With two text-figures)
By Waikhom Vishwanath and Wahengbam Manojkumar 86
TWO NEW SPECIES OF SCHIZOMIDS FROM INDIA WITH RANGE EXTENSION FOR SCHIZOMUS TIKA DERI ( ARACHNID A : SCHIZOMIDA)
( With twenty-six text-figures )
By D.B. Bastawade 90
A NEW SPECIES OF DESMODIUM DESVAUX., FABACEAE, FROM GARHWAL HIMALAYA, UTTARANCHAL, INDIA ( With one text-figure )
By L.R. Dangwal and R.D. Gaur 96
REVIEWS
1 . SAVING WILD TIGERS
Reviewed by Asad R. Rahmani 100
2. LIFE’S DEVICES: THE PHYSICAL WORLD OF ANIMALS AND PLANTS
Reviewed by Gayatri Ugra 101
3. BIRDS OF PUNE
Reviewed by Asad R. Rahmani 102
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
MAMMALS
1. High-tension electric poles used as night roost by troops of Hanuman langur Pres bytes entellus at Nahargarh Wildlife Sanctuary,
Jaipur
By Satish Kumar Sharma 103
2. Abnormal weight and length of the Indian pangolin Manis crassicaudata Gray, 1827, from Sirohi district, Rajasthan
By Satish Kumar Shanna 103
3. Scavenging by stripenecked mongoose Herpestes vitticollis on a tiger kill in Periyar Tiger Reserve, Kerala
By Baby Sajan and A. Veeramani 104
4. Notes on the food habits of striped hyena Hyaena hyaena Linn. 1758 in Sariska Tiger Reserve, Rajasthan
By K. Sankar and Bharat Jethwa 104
5. Attitudes towards Wildlife Conservation in Ranchi district — a case study
By H.S. Gupta 105
BIRDS
6. Some clarifications regarding the lesser
flamingo Phoenicopterus minor and the crab plover Dromas ardeola
By Lavkumar Khacher 106
7. Occurrence of Galloperdix spp., Family Phasianidae in northwestern Madhya Pradesh
By Rajiv Saxena 108
8. Observations on the mating behaviour of the Indian sarus crane Grus antigone in the wild
By Aeshita Mukherjee 108
9. A heronry at Traj in Kheda district, Gujarat
By Abdul Jamil Urfi 1 13
10. Interaction between Siberian crane Grus leucogeranus and checkered keelback snake Xenochrophis pis ca tor in Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur
By Gargi 114
1 1 . Two interesting avian records from Kutch, Gujarat State
By M.K. Himmatsinhji and S.N. Varu 115
12. Occurrence of the Ceylon frogmouth Batrachostomus moniliger (Family Podargidae) in Radhanagari Wildlife Sanctuary, Maharashtra
By Varad B. Giri 1 16
13. Jungle crow Corvus macrorhynchos and its ingenuity with dry roti
By Raza H. Tehsin 117
14. More evidence of red-vented bulbul Pycnonotus cafer feeding on house gecko Hemidactylus flaviviridis
By Samiran Jha 118
15. Brown crake Amaurornis akool Sykes feeding on the eggs of the large pied wagtail Motacilla maderaspatensis Gmelin
By Kiran Purandare 119
16. Status of the purple-rumped sunbird Nectar inia zeylonica in Gujarat State
By B.M. Parasharya and Raju Vyas 119
u
17. A supplementary note on the avifauna of the Thar desert (Rajasthan)
By Harkirat Singh Sangha 120
REPTILES
18. Strange behaviour in the rat snake Ptyas mucosus, Family Colubridae
By Priti Sawant and
Anuradha Rajagopalan 126
AMPHIBIA
19. First record of Boulenger’s tree frog Chirixalus vittatus (Anura: Rhacophoridae) from Mizoram, northeast India
By Kaushik Deuti and Sushil Dutta 126
FISHES
20. On the distribution of Oreonectes ( Indoreonectes ) evezardi Day and O. (I) keralensis Rita, Banarescu and Nalbant (Pisces: Balitoridae)
By K. Rema Devi, T.J. Indra and S. Krishnan 127
21. Rediscovery of critically endangered air breathing catfish Clarias dayi Hora, Pisces: Claridae, at Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary,
Tamil Nadu
By A. Manimekalan and M. Arunachalam .... 129
22. Some ingenious methods of fishing
By Venkatesh N. Hegde 131
INSECTS
23. A new record of Brachymeria lasus Walker (Hymenoptera: Chalcididae) on Euchromia polymeria Linnaeus (Lepidoptera: Syntomidae)
By Vinayan P. Nair 132
24. Oviposition behaviour of Palexorista solennis Walker, Diptera: Tachinidae, a
tachinid parasitoid of teak defoliator, Hyblaea puera Cramer
By J. Loganathan and P.M.M. David 132
25. Further contribution on the Diptera (Insecta) fauna of Andaman and Nicobar Islands
By P. Parui, B. Mitra, M. Mukherjee and
R.S. Mridha 135
26. Seasonal occurrence of Melanitis leda ismene (Cramer), Satyridae: Lepidoptera, with comments on its dry and wet season forms
ByV.K. Walia 137
OTHER INVERTEBRATES
27. Molluscan fauna and its distribution in the Wild Ass Sanctuary
By V.C. Soni, K.P. Bhalodia, S.M. Dave and
V.J. Bhuva 139
28. First record of Bosmina tripurae Korinek et al., 1999, Crustacea: Cladocera: Bosminidae, from Assam
By Bikramjit Sinha 141
29. On the damage caused to the green mussel Perna viridis by Pinnotherid crab Pinnotheres casta Antony & Kuttyamma,
1971 along the Calicut coast
By R.S. Lai Mohan, George Varghese and Ernesto Campos 142
30. Preliminary studies on spider diversity and their webs in selected sacred groves in Kerala By C. Sivaperuman, P.S. Easa and
S. Swetharanyam 144
BOTANY
3 1 . Notes on Clematis bourdillonii Dunn (Family Ranunculaceae)
By G.V.S. Murthy 148
32. Presence of Commiphora gileadense, Family Burseraceae, in Rajasthan
By Satish Kumar Sharma 152
3 3 . Ventilago bombaiensis Dalz., Rhamnaceae — a new distributional record for Tamil Nadu By V.S. Manickam, C. Murugan,
V. Sundaresan and G. Jeya Jothi 153
34. On the occurrence of Pogostemon travancoricus Family Labiatae and Argyreia choisyana, Family Convolvulaceae in Tamil Nadu
By V.S. Manickam, V. Sundaresan,
C. Murugan and G.J. Jothi 155
35. Occurrence of Habenaria longicorniculata Grah. Family Orchidaceae in Mount Abu Wildlife Sanctuary, Rajasthan
By Satish Kumar Sharma 156
36. Doum palm at Bhangarh, Rajasthan?
By Satish Kumar Sharma 157
37. Typhonium Jlagelliforme (Roxb. ex Ludd.)
Blume, Family Araceae: an addition to the flora of Orissa
By P.C. Panda 157
38. Observations on the genus Radiococcus,
Family Chlorophyceae, a new record for India By Pawan K. Dadheech and
Pushpa Srivastava 158
Cover Photograph: Karvi Carvia callosa by Ashok Kothari
Editorial
Karvi or the common conehead was first described and named Strobilanthes callosus , by the German botanist Nees in Nathaniel Wallich’s rare plants of asia published in 1 832. Karvi belongs to the group of plants called pliestosials, which flower once in several years. Bamboos are another example. John Graham, the Presidency Postmaster of Bombay, quoting local tribals in his catalogue of Bombay plants recorded that karvi flowers every ten years. Duthie (JBNHS 5: 417-8, 1890) quoting natives of the Tapti Valley says that its flowering cycle was three years, but his observations on plants of Western Ghats placed it between 8 and 9 years. Its flowering cycle, once in seven years at Khandala, during April-May, was first noted in 1928 by Charles McCann, then Asst. Curator of the BNHS. Thereafter, this record was confirmed from the same area by Rev. Fr. H. Santapau in 1 942 and again in 1 949. Bremekamp raised the species to monotypic generic status, based on the absence of bracteoles in the flowers, naming it Carvia callosa (Nees) Bremekamp, using its local common name karvi for the generic epithet. Lisboa in the Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society Bombay { 1883), and the European traveler Clement Markham in travels in peru and India (1984) have praised this beautiful flowering plant of the Western Ghats. Constable commented on its pleasant, sweet, resinous, aromatic odour scenting the air, and the scent lingering on the hands after touching the bracts, even after washing them thrice over. He published a beautiful colour plate of the flowers in Curtis’ Botanical Magazine (plate no. 7538) in 1897. Since then, it has attracted and inspired many artists and photographers at various places like Amboli, Borivli National Park, Khandala, Mahabaleshwar and Matheran in Maharashtra.
Rev. Fr. Santapau described the plant as the King of the Khandala slopes. The flower is generally white on the tube and purple on the petals. However, like many other Acanthaceae, the petals sometimes vary in colour from pink or blue to pure white, depending upon the colour-gene carrier insect pollinators.
Karvi is rich in honey, which is valued for its medicinal properties, and the gregarious flowering provides exceptionally high yield. Observations during the 1 960 flowering season at Mahabaleshwar showed that the concentration of the nectar in flowers, which is 20-25% around 8 a.m., increases to 37% around noon, and remains static until 3 p.m. before declining. The leaves are toxic and non-palatable for cattle and humans, causing vomiting and inflammation of the mucous membrane of the stomach. However, the plant is esteemed for its insect repellent properties and in Junagadh, it is reported to have been used to protect woollens from insect pests. The bark is used in the preparation of an external application in parotitis, and the flowers are considered vulnerary. Its straight stems are used by the local tribals for the construction of house walls, plastered together with mud and cow-dung.
M.R. ALMEIDA
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We are grateful to the Ministry of Science and Technology,
Govt of India,
FOR ENHANCED FINANCIAL SUPPORT FOR THE PUBLICATION OF THE JOURNAL.
CITATION OF IC/EC NUMBERS FOR GENETIC MATERIALS
It is brought to our notice by the National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR), Pusa Campus, New Delhi 110 012, India, that authors writing papers on particular plant materials (genetic materials) should indicate IC numbers for Indigenous collections and EC numbers for Exotic collections. Authors can directly procure these single accession numbers for each genetic material from NBPGR. In the present Intellectual Property Rights regime, it is in our national interest that all the germplasm material possess a single national accession number.
Authors are therefore requested to procure IC/EC numbers from NBPGR and state them on the manuscript, without which papers will not be accepted for publication.
Editors
JOURNAL
OF THE
BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY
April 2002 Vol. 99 No. 1
THE HONEY BEES OF INDIA, HYMENOPTERA: APIDAE'
Michael S. Engel2 ( With one text-figure)
Key words: Apis , Apoidea, honey bees, key, systematics
A summary is given for the honey bee species {Apis Linnaeus) indigenous to India. Four indigenous species are recognized from the region; Apis cerana, A. dorsata, A. florea and A. andrenifcrmis .
All are commonly found in India except for A. andreniformis, which is only known from a few specimens collected in the northeastern boundaries of the country. A dichotomous key is presented to aid the identification of these species and notes given on how to separate them from the
Most authors today agree upon at least six species: Apis mellifera Linnaeus (1758), A. cerana Fabricius (1793), A. dorsata Fabric i us (1793), A. florea Fabricius (1787), A. andreniformis Smith (1858), and A. koschevnikovi Enderlein (1906: not Buttel- Reepen [1906], see Engel [1999]). The Sulawesi bee, A. nigrocincta Smith (1861) is also deserving of specific rank, as has been demonstrated by Hadisoesilo et al. (1995) and Hadisoesilo and Otis ( 1 996, 1 998). Although this taxon was in the past not considered specifically distinct (Engel 1998) it has since been added to the list of valid honey bee species (Engel 1999). Currently, the giant Himalayan honey bee, A. laboriosa Smith (in Moore et al. 1871), is considered a subspecies of A. dorsata (e.g., Engel 1999), but continued work on this taxon may later reinstate it as a separate species. A similar argument can be made for the Bornean honey bees known as A. nuluensis Tingek et al. ( 1 996) but they are for now best classified as a subspecies of A. cerana.
Most recently, Engel (1999) has listed the species in the genus, both recent and fossil, with
introduced western honey bee, A. mellifera.
Introduction
The honey bees (genus Apis Linnaeus) are by far the most famous of all insects owing to their production of honey, pollination of crop plants, and advanced eusocial behaviour, which has attracted much attention from biologists. Unfortunately, the systematics of this small and highly visible group is not clearly understood. This is partly owing to the high levels of variation within species and to the recent divergence times between taxa. Surprisingly, few modern monographs have been produced to clarify the taxonomic confusion within this important group of bees. The last monograph for the genus was undertaken by Maa (1953); however, his extreme classification recognized 24 species and subspecies in three genera. It is sometimes difficult when utilizing his keys and classification to reconcile names with the seven species generally recognized today.
‘Accepted September, 1999
2Division of Entomology, Natural History Museum,
Snow Hall, 1 460 Jayhawk Boulevard, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas 66045-7523, USA
JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY 99(1), APR. 2002
3
THE HONEYBEES OF INDIA
detailed taxonomic histories for all species and subspecies. He has provided revised diagnoses for the genus and its subgenera, and detailed a phylogenetic hypothesis of their relationships. Table 1 outlines the classification of honey bees as it is presently conceived.
Herein I provide a key to the indigenous species presently known from India. The dichotomous key is primarily designed for the worker bees, since this is the caste most often encountered in the field. However, characters for drones and queens are also included, and these castes can be identified with the key. For detailed taxonomic histories of each species refer to Engel (1999).
Key to the Indian tribes of Corbiculate Apinae
1. Jugal lobe of hind wing present (Fig. lb); metatibial spurs absent; arolia present; outer
grooves of mandible absent 2
— Jugal lobe of hind wing absent; metatibial spurs
present; arolia absent or reduced; outer grooves of mandible present (Bumble bees; genus Bombus Latreille) Bombini
2. Forewing with reduced distal wing venation, marginal cell frequently open at apex; claws simple; penicillum present in worker; auricle absent; sting reduced (Stingless bees; numerous
genera) Meliponini
— Forewing with complete distal wing venation, marginal cell long and completely bordered by veins (Fig. la); claws cleft; penicillum absent in worker; auricle present; sting well developed (Honey bees; genus Apis Linnaeus) Apini
Genus Apis Linnaeus
The genus can be distinguished from other corbiculate members of the Apinae by the following combination of characters (see also diagnosis presented by Engel 1999): compound eyes with long, fine hairs; metatibia lacking penicillum; metatibial spurs absent; claws cleft; arolia present; wing venation strong and complete; marginal cell long, bluntly rounded at apex, not tapering along its length; jugal lobe present; compound eyes of drones meet at top of head. Three extant subgenera are recognized (Engel 1999); the giant honey bees, subgenus
me
Fig. 1: Diagrammatic wing venation of Apis {Apis) cerana Fabricius a. Forewing showing the elongate marginal cell (me) typical of Apis, b. Hind wing showing distal abscissa
of the Median (M) vein; arrow indicates jugal lobe.
4
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002
THE HONEYBEES OF INDIA
Megapis ; the dwarf honey bees, subgenus Micrapis; and the typical honey bees, subgenus Apis s. str. All three subgenera natively occur in India. Both species of the stibgenus Micrapis are recorded from India while only a single species of Apis s str. is native to the country. The subgenus Megapis is monotypic and represented by A. dorsata. The indigenous species in India all nest in the open, except for A. cerana which nests in cavities.
The western honeybee, A. mellifera , has been introduced into India for agricultural purposes. This introduced species is not included
in the key below. It can be separated from the native species before attempting to use the key, by the following combination of characters: distal abscissa of vein M in hind wing absent; size moderate (7-10 mm); wings hyaline; drones without metabasitarsal process.
Key to the native Apis of India
(Workers, queens, and drones)
1 . Distal abscissa of vein M in hind wing present; worker size variable, moderate to large, forewing length 7-15 mm (subgenera Apis and Megapis ) 2
Table 1
HIERARCHICAL CLASSIFICATION OF HONEY BEES (ENGEL, 1999)
Table 1 (contd.)
HIERARCHICAL CLASSIFICATION OF HONEY BEES (ENGEL, 1999)
GENUS APIS LINNAEUS Subgenus Apis Linnaeus
A. cerana Fabricius*
A. c. cerana Fabricius*
A. c. heimifeng Engel A. c. indica Fabricius*
A. c.japonica Radoszkowski A. c.javana Enderlein A. c. johni Skorikov A. c. nuluensis Tingek et al. A. c. skorikovi Engel A. koschevnikovi Enderlein A. mellifera Linnaeus
A. m. adami Ruttner A. m. adansonii Latreille A. m. anatoliaca Maa A. m. artemisia Engel A. m. Eschscholtz
A. m. carnica Pollmann A. m. caucasia Pollmann A. m. cecropia Kiesenwetter A. m. cypria Pollmann A. m. iberiensis Engel A. m. intermissa Maa A. m.jemenitica Ruttner A. m. lamarckii Cockerell A. m. ligustica Spinola A. m. iitorea Smith A. m. macedonica Ruttner A. m. meda Skorikov
A. m. mellifera Linnaeus A. m. monticola Smith A. m. remipes Gerstacker A. m. ruttneri Sheppard et al.
A. m. sahariensis Baldensperger A. m. scutellata Lepeletier de Saint Fargeau A. m. siciliana Grassi A. m. sossimai Engel A. m. syriaca Skorikov A. m. taurica Alpatov A. m. unicolor Latreille A. nigrocincta Smith subgenus Cascapis Engel j
A. armbrusteri Zeuner t subgenus Megapis Ashmead
A. dorsata Fabricius*
A. d. binghami Cockerell A. d. breviligula (Maa)
A. d. dorsata Fabricius*
A. d. lab or i os a Smith subgenus Micrapis Ashmead
A. andreniformis Smith*
A.florea Fabricius* subgenus Prior apis Engel t A. vetusta Engel | subgenus Synapis Cockerell f
A. henshawi Cockerell t A. longtibia Zhang t A. miocenica Hong |
A. petrefacta (Riha) f
(f ) indicates fossil taxa,
(*) indicates taxa natively occurring in India.
Several of the subspecies presently recognised in A. mellifera should probably be synonymized (e.g. A. mellifera taurica).
JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002
5
THE HONEYBEES OF INDIA
— Distal abscissa of vein M in hind wing absent;
worker size small, forewing length 6-7 mm. (subgenus Micrapis) 3
2. Forewing hyaline; scutellum yellow-brown,
rarely black; drone with tarsi unmodified; worker size moderate, forewing length 7-9 mm. (subgenus Apis s. str.) A. cerana
— Forewing fuscous; scutellum black; drone with
dense frond-like setae on meso- and metatarsi; worker size large, forewing length 12-15 mm (subgenus Megapis ) A. dorsata
3. Metatibia and dorsolateral margin of
metabasitarsus with black setae; metasomal terga 1-2 black, infrequently with reddish- brown hints apically on tergum 1 or basally on tergum 2; drone metabasitarsal process short,
less than one-half metabasitarsus length
A. andreniformis
— Metatibia and dorsolateral margin of
metabasitarsus with white setae; metasomal terga 1-2 reddish-brown; drone metabasitarsal process long, more than two-thirds
metabasitarsus length A. florea
1. Apis (Apis) cerana Fabricius, Eastern honey bee: This is the species most often kept in apiaries and used for agricultural purposes as has been done for nearly 5 millenia in India (Joshi et al. 1980), although to a lesser degree since the introduction of A. mellifera. Feral colonies typically nest in tree hollows, unlike the other three Indian species, which nest openly.
Apis cerana is genetically diverse in India with a distinctive western and eastern mitochondrial DNA type (Smith and Hagen 1996). These genetic haplotypes correspond to the “plains bee” and “hills bee” morphs of Ruttner (1988) respectively. The plains bee taxonomically corresponds to the subspecies A. cerana indica Fabricius (1798) while the hills bee appears to be A. cerana cerana. Eight subspecies of A. cerana are recognized, although only two are presently understood to occur in
India (Engel 1999; Table 1).
2. Apis (Megapis) dorsata Fabricius, Giant honey bee: This species is commonly referred to as the giant honey bee owing to its large body size. Workers of A. dorsata can be quite vicious when the colony is disturbed and their sting is probably the most painful of any honey bee species. Much of the wax and honey harvested in India comes from this species (Thakar and Tonapi 1961, Singh 1980). It builds nests most often high in trees usually affixed to the underside of strong limbs.
Four subspecies are presently recognized in A. dorsata (Table 1), but only the nominate subspecies is found in India.
3. Apis (Micrapis) florea Fabricius, Red dwarf honey bee: These tiny bees are relatively docile and can be worked with little difficulty; however, some nest disturbances can cause the colony to abscond and rarely are A. florea colonies managed by beekeepers. As noted by Otis (1991, 1996), in northeastern India where A. florea and A. andreniformis overlap, A. andreniformis occurs at higher elevations while A. florea occurs in the lowlands.
4. Apis (Micrapis) andreniformis Smith, Black dwarf honey bee: Unlike its sister species, A. florea , which occurs throughout India, A. andreniformis is presently restricted to the northeastern regions of the country and is exceedingly uncommon. Otis (1996) gives the distribution for A. andreniformis over the entirety of its range and records the few localities from Meghalaya, Sikkim and West Bengal, where it has been captured. The species is probably more common in Bhutan and Nepal, but no collection records have yet been made. Apis andreniformis was only recently reinstated as a valid species of the genus by Wu and Kuang (1986, 1987) and further confirmed by Wongsiri et al. (1990).
References
Buttel-Reepen, H., von. (1906): Apistica Beitrage zur geographischen Verbreitung der Ho
Systematik, Biologie, sowie zur geschichtlichen und nigbiene (Apis mellifica L.), ihrer Varietaten und der
6
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THE HONEYBEES OF INDIA
uberigen Apis Arten. Mitt. Zool. Mus. Berlin 3: 117-
201.
Enderlein, G. ( 1 906): Neue Honigbienen und Beitrage zur Kenntnis der Verbreitung der Gattung Apis. Stett. Entomol. Ztg. 67: 331-344.
Engel, M.S. (1998): Fossil honey bees and evolution in the genus Apis (Hymenoptera: Apidae). Apido/ogie 29: 265-281.
Engel, M.S. (1999): The taxonomy of recent and fossil honey bees (Hymenoptera: Apidae, Apis). J. Hym. Res. 8: 165-196.
Fabricius, J.C. (1787): Mantissa insectorum sistems eorum species nuper detectas adiectis characteribus genericus, differentiis specificis, emendationibus, observationibus, Vol. 1. Proft, Copenhagen, pp. xx+348.
Fabricius, J.C. (1793): Entomologia systematica emendata et aucta. Secundum classes, ordines, genera, species adiectis synonymis, locis, observationibus, descriptionibus, Vol. 2. Proft, Copenhagen, pp. viii+519.
Fabricius, J.C. (1798): Supplementum Entomologiae Systematicae. Proft, Copenhagen, pp. [2]+572.
Hadisoesilo, S. & G.M. Otis (1996): Drone flight times confirm the species status of Apis nigrocincta Smith, 1861 to be a species distinct from Apis cerana F, 1793, in Sulawesi, Indonesia. Apidologie 27: 36 1 - 369.
Hadisoesilo, S. & G.W. Otis (1998): Differences in drone cappings of Apis cerana and Apis nigrocincta. J.Apic. Res. 37: 11-15.
Hadisoesilo, S., G.W. Otis & M. Meixner (1995): Two distinct populations of cavity nesting honey bees (Hymenoptera: Apidae) in South Sulawesi, Indonesia. J. Kans. Entomol. Soc. 68: 399-407.
Joshi, M.A., V.V. Diwan & M.C. Suryanarayana (1980): Bees and honey in ancient India. Pwc. Int. Conf. Apic. Trop. Climate 2: 143-149.
Linnaeus, C. (1758): Systema naturae per regna tria naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis, ed. 10, vol. 1 Reformata. Salviae, Stockholm, pp. 824.
Maa, T.C. (1953): An inquiry into the systematics of the tribus Apidini or honeybees (Hym). Treubia. 21: 525- 640.
Moore, F., F. Walker & F. Smith (1871): Descriptions of some new insects collected by Dr. Anderson during the expedition to Yunan. Proc. Zool. Soc. London 1871: 244-249.
Otis, G.W. (1991): A review of the diversity of species within Apis. Diversity in the Genus . Westview Press, Boulder, pp. 29-49.
Otis, G.W. (1996): Distributions of recently recognized species of honey bees (Hymenoptera: Apidae; Apis) in Asia. J. Kans. Entomol. Soc., snppl. 69: 3 1 1 -333.
Ruttner, F. (1988): Biogeography and taxonomy of honey bees. Springer Verlag, Berlin, pp. xxii+284.
Singh, Y. (1980): Bee-keeping in Uttar Pradesh — a review. Proc. Int. Conf. Apic. Trop. Climate 2: 211-226.
Smith, D.R. & R.H. Hagen (1996): The biogeography of Apis cerana as revealed by mitochondrial DNA sequence data. J. Kans. Entomol. Soc., snppl. 69: 294-310.
Smith, F. (1858): Catalogue of the hymenopterous insects collected at Sarawak, Borneo; Mount Ophir, Malacca; and at Singapore, by A.R. Wallace. Proc. Linn. Soc., London 2: 42-130.
Smith, F. (1861): Descriptions of new species of hymenopterous insects collected by Mr. AR. Wallace at Celebes. Proc. Linn. Soc., London 5: 57-93.
Thakar, C.V. & K.V. Tonapi (1961): Nesting behaviour of Indian honey bees. 1. Differentiation of worker, queen and drone cells of the comb of Apis dorsata Fabr. Bee World 42: 61-62, 71.
Tingek, S., G. Koeniger & N. Koeniger (1996): Description of a new cavity nesting species of Apis {Apis nuluensis n. sp.) from Sabah, Borneo, with notes on its occurrence and reproductive biology. Senck. biol. 76: 115-119.
Wongsiri, S., K. Limbipichai, P. Tangkanasing, M. Mardan, T. Rinderer, H.A. Sylvester, G. Koeniger & G. Otis ( 1 990): Evidence of reproductive isolations confirms that Apis andreniformis (Smith, 1 858) is a separate species from sympatric florea (Fabricius, 1787). Apidologie 21: 47-52.
Wu, Y. & B. Kuang ( 1 986): A study of the genus Micrapis (Apidae). Zool. Res. 7: 99-102.
Wu, Y. & B. Kuang (1987): Two species of small honey bee — a study of the genus Micrapis. Bee World 68: 153-155.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002
1
STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION OF TWO BIRD COMMUNITIES IN THE SOUTHERN WESTERN GHATS1
E.A. Jayson2 and D.N. Mathew3 ( With 5 text-figures)
Key words: Bird community, tropical forest. Western Ghats, Kerala, India
The structure and composition of bird communities was studied in the Tropical Evergreen and Moist Deciduous forests of Silent Valley and Mukkali in the Western Ghats of south India from 1988 to 1993. Variable width line transects were employed to assess the bird community each month. To correlate the structure and composition of bird community to the vegetation type, parameters like girth class distribution of trees, maturity index of 'vegetation and vegetation profile diagrams were prepared. A total of 9,921 birds were recorded during the period of study, and altogether 137 taxa of birds were identified from the two vegetation types. Species richness of birds was similar in both the habitats. The yellow-browed bulbul ( Hypsipetes indicus ) was the most common and dominant species at Silent Valley (Tropical Evergreen), whereas at Mukkali (Tropical Moist Deciduous) black drongo ( Dicrurus adsimilis) was the most common and jungle babbler ( Turdoides striatus ) was the dominant species. No significant difference in bird species richness between years was found in the Tropical Evergreen forests, whereas significant difference in species richness was obtained between different years in the Tropical Moist Deciduous Forest. The study showed that a high diversity index of vegetation (IT) is an indication of increased density of birds in tropical forests.
Introduction
The structure and composition of bird communities are known to vary in different vegetation types (Wiens 1989). The pioneering studies of MacArthur and MacArthur (1961) established the relationship between bird diversity and vegetation structure. MacArthur et al. (1962), and MacArthur et al. (1966), supported the above hypothesis, but some studies showed negative relationship also (Wiens 1983). Studies on forest bird communities mainly examined parameters like the structure of forest bird communities (Nilson 1983), distributions (Howe et al. 1981) and community organization (Landers and MacMahon 1980). Yorke (1984) and Terborgh et al. (1990) described the community structure of tropical forest birds. Many workers have demonstrated the relationship between bird communities and forest
'Accepted February, 2001
2Division of Wildlife Biology, Kerala Forest Research Institute, Peechi 680 653, Kerala, India.
3Plot No. 1 234, West End Colony, Mogappair, Padi PO, Chennai 600 050, Tamil Nadu, India.
structure (Karr 1971, Karr and Roth 1971, Beedy 1981 and Rice et al. 1984). The roles of vegetation structure, competitors and productivity were described by Cody (1981) and the relation between total crown volume and bird diversity by Verner and Larson (1989). Similarly, patchiness of shrub distribution to diversity (Roth 1976), species richness to plant taxa (Terborgh 1985), tree species richness (James and Warmer 1982) and birds in plantations and indigenous forest were described by Carlson (1986).
Even though many aspects of birds were studied in the Western Ghats of south India, (Vijayan and Balakrishnan 1977, Vijayan 1978, Zacharias and Gaston 1993, Srivastava et al. 1993, Nair et al. 1997) community studies of birds are few in number. Earlier workers (Anon. 1990) also carried out many faunal studies in the Evergreen Forests of Silent Valley. While studying the bird communities in the forests of northern Kerala, Ramakrishnan (1983) examined certain aspects of birds of Silent Valley. The relationship between birds and vegetation in New Delhi was revealed by Gaston (1979).
8
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002
STR UCTURE AND COMPOSITION OF BIRD COMMUNITIES
Gandhi (1986) compared the bird community structure of scrub jungle and monoculture plantations. Diversity and community structure of birds were also studied by Daniels (1989), Daniels et al. (1990), Katti (1989) and Sundaramoorthy (1991).
The objective of the study was to evaluate and compare the structure and species composition of bird communities at two ecologically different habitats. Three characters of vegetation were analysed to compare and find out the relationships between the vegetation and bird community. The study forms part of a major investigation (Jayson 1994), which determined many ecological aspects of two bird communities. Seasonal changes in these bird communities were reported earlier (Jayson and Mathew 2000). Diversity and species abundance and distribution were also published (Jayson and Mathew 2000a).
Study Area
The study area is located in Palakkad district, Kerala State, 45 km north of Mannarghat, the nearest town, in the Western Ghats of south India between 11° 3'- 11° 13' N
and 76° 25’-76° 35' E. After evaluating the entire area, two study sites were selected: a Tropical Evergreen Forest, Silent Valley, and a Moist Deciduous Forest at Mukkali. The detailed description of the study areas with a map has been given earlier (Jayson and Mathew 2000). The first site is partially degraded and most of the disturbance happened in the late seventies and early eighties, in the course of felling trees and pre-construction work of an abandoned dam. The elevation of the tract varies from 500 m to 1,500 m above msl and the topography is undulating. These two study sites are separated by about 20 km, but the vegetation types differ. Anthropomorphic pressures were severe at Mukkali due to the proximity to human habitations. There was also a difference of 400 m in elevation between the two sites. There are two distinct seasons in the study area, monsoon season from end of May up to mid- November, and the dry summer season from December to April. There is no clearly marked winter. Fast southwesterly winds blow from the western side during the monsoon. Ombrothermic diagrams of Silent Valley and Mukkali are given in Figs 1 and 2.
1400 1200 1000 c 800
• H
£ 600 400 200 0
J FMAMJ J ASOND
Months
Fig. 1: Ombrothermic diagram of Silent Valley (1988-1993)
JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002
9
STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION OF BIRD COMMUNITIES
600
Months
Rainfall -+-Temp.
Fig. 2: Ombrothermic diagram of Mukkali (1988-1993)
Methods
Vegetation: The vegetation structure, vegetation structure profile and the girth class distribution of trees in the study area were analysed. In addition to this, percentage composition of trees at the two areas was also measured.
Vegetation structure profile: A schematic diagram, which resembles the physiognomy of the stands of forest, is shown in the form of a profile diagram. It depicts a representative forest stand pictorially, size to scale. A 5 m x 50 m strip of forest stand was demarcated, and the position of each tree in it was marked on graph paper. Girth at breast height (GBH) and total height were recorded using a range finder. Crown shapes of individual trees were drawn on graph paper in the field. Using these pictorial and quantitative data, a profile diagram with measurements to scale (Richards 1952) was constructed.
Girth class distribution: Girth of trees at breast height (GBH) with more than 10 cm was measured randomly on both sides of the transect within a width of 30 m from the central line at Silent Valley and Mukkali. Altogether, 795 trees
were measured at Silent Valley and 552 trees were enumerated at Mukkali. From this data, girth class distribution was plotted.
Percentage composition of trees: One hundred plots of 5 m radius each in Silent Valley and 200 such plots in Mukkali were enumerated. Plots were enumerated on both sides of the transect line, the minimum distance between plots was 25 m. Among the 200 plots at Mukkali, 100 were in natural forest and the rest were in the coffee estate. All the trees above 10 cm in GBH were identified and recorded. The diversity and percentage composition of trees were worked out using the following formulae (Phillips 1 959).
Total number of individuals
Density (D) =
Total number of quadrats studied
Total number of individuals
Abundance (Ab) =
Number of quadrats of occurrence
10
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002
STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION OF BIRD COMMUNITIES
Number of quadrats of occurrence
% Frequency = x 100
(% F) Total number
of quadrats studied
Number of individuals of the species
Relative density = x J 00
(RD) Number of individuals
of all species
Relative
frequency
(RF)
Number of occurrence of the species in the quadrat
x 100
Number of occurrence of all species
The following formula is used to estimate maturity index value from the two study areas (Pichi-Sermolli 1948).
Total % frequency of a locality
Maturity index =
(Ml) Total number
of species present
Diversity was calculated using Shannon- Wener Index (H’= - Z (pi In pi) with the program spdivers.bas developed by Ludwig and Reynolds (1988).
Birds: After considering all the available methods, the Variable Width Line Transect Method described by Burnham et al. (1980) was adopted, in which the observer walks through a fixed path, counting the birds seen or heard on both sides of the path. Whenever a bird was spotted, it was identified up to species and details like the number of birds, and habitat were noted. Birds were identified using a binocular (10 x 30) and with the help of field guides and reference books (Ali 1969, Ali and Ripley 1983).
Additionally, whenever a bird was sighted in the study period, it was identified and recorded.
Two line transects, each 4 km in length, were selected, one at Silent Valley and another at Mukkali. The transects covered representative habitats of the area, the first transect covered Evergreen Forest, burnt areas, and the second transect covered Moist Deciduous Forest, rocky patches, and burnt Moist Deciduous Forest. Observations were started 30 minutes after sunrise in all the months, and no census was done on days with very heavy rain and fog. Two observations were carried out in each area in a month. Altogether 150 samples of line transects were collected from the study area between May 1988 and April 1993. Among these, 80 line transects were from Silent Valley and 70 were from Mukkali spread over 45 months. There was a gap of 8 months from May 1991 to December 1991 in the collection of data.
To find out the common bird species of each area the Commonness Index of the two areas was computed. Commonness Index is the average frequency of sighting of a species in one sampling at a site. The relative dominance of each bird species in the two areas was determined by calculating the Dominance Index. The following formula was used for calculating Relative Dominance.
Relative Dominance = ni x 100/N
Where ni = number of individuals of the species.
N = The total number of individuals of all the species seen during the study period.
Results
Vegetation
Vegetation structure profile : Vegetation profile diagram of the Evergreen Forests showed trees in three canopy layers (Fig. 3). Trees having a height of more than 30 m were quite common; the trees were densely packed. One peculiarity
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002
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STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION OF BIRD COMMUNITIES
Fig. 3: Vegetation profile (5 m x 50 m) of Silent Valley showing different canopy levels
at Silent Valley was the presence of shola forests. The vegetation profile diagram of Mukkali showed only two distinct canopy levels (Fig. 4). Trees having a height of more than 30 m were very rare; the individual trees were very loosely packed.
Girth class distribution'. Girth class distribution of trees (more than 10 cm GBH) recorded from Silent Valley and Mukkali is shown in Fig. 5. Being a wet Evergreen Forest, trees having more than 270 cm GBH were common at Silent Valley; but at Mukkali trees of large GBH were absent. Newly introduced trees in Mukkali were less than in Silent Valley (10- 30 cm class). The prospect of new introductions
in Mukkali was also poor, mainly due to the illegal removal of poles for household purposes and firewood by locals. Most of the natural tree growth in the estate was maintained to provide shade to the coffee and pepper. The vegetation of this area was degraded and burnt clumps of bamboo were seen intermittently.
The following trees and shrubs were recorded from Mukkali: Terminalia bellerica , Eucalyptus, Dalbergia lanceolaria, D. latifolia , Leucaena leucocepha/a, Erythrina suberosa, Grevillea robusta, Calotropis gigantea, Bambusa bambos , Ficus carica , Cassia fistula , Carica papaya , Grewia tiliaefolia , Bauhinia racemosa, Acacia concinna, Albizzia lebbeck , Tamarindus
12
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STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION OF BIRD COMMUNITIES
0 10 20 30 40
Fig. 4: Vegetation profile (5 m x 50 m) of Mukkali showing different canopy levels
50 m
indica, Emblica officinalis , Pterocarpus marsupium, Solanum sp., Lantana camara, Antiaris toxicaria , Cycas sp. and Calophyllum inophyllum. Other tree species included Lagerstroemia flos-reginae , Litsea zeylanica , Cenchrus inhirini , Psychotria sp., Cipadessa baccifera, Xylia xylocarpa , Haldina cordifolia, Lagerstroemia microcarpa and Macaranga peltata. Common shrubs recorded from the area were Abutilon indica , Crotalaria sp., Pimpinella heyneana. Hibiscus sp., Impatiens flaccida and Heliotropium scabrum. Grasses recorded were Pennisetum, Thomeda and Cymbopogon.
Percentage composition of trees: Silent Valley. Fifty-three species of trees were recorded from the plots at Silent Valley (Table 1). Macaranga peltata with 140 individuals had the
greatest abundance (2.85), highest density (0.70) and frequency (24.50) among the vegetation recorded (Table 1). Its relative density and frequency was also higher than the other vegetation. Maturity index of the vegetation at Silent Valley was 2.85 and Shannon-Wener diversity index was 2.91.
Mukkali : Twenty-two tree species numbering about 256 individuals were recorded from the plots (Table 2). Albizzia had the greatest density and frequency, while Terminalia chebula was the most abundant among the other vegetation recorded.
Coffee Estate : Terminalia paniculata was the most dense and frequent, while Erythrina suberosa was the most abundant (Table 3). The maturity index of the natural forest was 10.00
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002
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STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION OF BIRD COMMUNITIES
Table 1
ABUNDANCE OF TREE SPECIES AT SILENT VALLEY (TROPICAL EVERGREEN FOREST)
|
Species |
No. of individuals |
D |
Ab |
% F |
RD |
RF |
|
Macaranga peltata |
140 |
0.70 |
2.85 |
24.50 |
30.43 |
16.0 |
|
Unidentified |
2 |
0.01 |
2.00 |
0.50 |
0.43 |
0.32 |
|
Persea macrantha |
7 |
0.03 |
1.16 |
3.00 |
1.52 |
1.96 |
|
Cinnamomum zeylanicum |
1 |
0.01 |
1.00 |
0.50 |
0.21 |
0.32 |
|
Schleichera oleosa |
6 |
0.03 |
1.00 |
3.00 |
1.30 |
1.96 |
|
Diospyros sp. |
1 |
0.01 |
1.00 |
0.50 |
0.21 |
0.32 |
|
Unidentified |
7 |
0.03 |
1.40 |
2.50 |
1.52 |
1.63 |
|
Palaquium ellipticum |
28 |
0.14 |
1.40 |
10.00 |
6.08 |
6.55 |
|
Cullenia sp. |
5 |
0.02 |
1.66 |
1.50 |
1.08 |
0.98 |
|
Valeria indica |
4 |
0.02 |
1.33 |
1.50 |
0.87 |
0.98 |
|
Melia dubia |
15 |
0.07 |
1.15 |
6.50 |
3.26 |
4.26 |
|
Antidesma sp. |
8 |
0.04 |
1.00 |
4.00 |
1.73 |
2.62 |
|
Syzygium cumini |
4 |
0.02 |
1.00 |
2.00 |
0.87 |
1.31 |
|
Unidentified |
15 |
0.07 |
1.25 |
6.00 |
3.26 |
3.93 |
|
Macaranga indica |
52 |
0.26 |
1.52 |
17.00 |
11.30 |
11.14 |
|
Artocarpus integrifolia |
3 |
0.01 |
1.00 |
1.50 |
0.65 |
0.98 |
|
Unidentified |
1 |
0.01 |
1.00 |
0.50 |
0.21 |
0.32 |
|
Unidentified |
1 |
0.05 |
1.00 |
0.50 |
0.21 |
0.32 |
|
Myristica attenuata |
12 |
0.06 |
1.50 |
4.00 |
2.60 |
2.62 |
|
Trema orientalis |
1 |
0.01 |
1.00 |
0.50 |
0.21 |
0.32 |
|
Lansium sp. |
16 |
0.08 |
1.45 |
5.50 |
3.47 |
3.60 |
|
Bischofia javanica |
20 |
0.10 |
1.05 |
9.50 |
4.34 |
6.22 |
|
Unidentified |
4 |
0.02 |
1.00 |
2.00 |
0.87 |
1.31 |
|
Unidentified |
1 |
0.01 |
1.00 |
0.50 |
0.21 |
1.31 |
|
Unidentified |
1 |
0.01 |
1.00 |
0.50 |
0.21 |
0.32 |
|
Alstonia scholar is |
1 |
0.01 |
1.00 |
0.50 |
0.21 |
0.32 |
|
Xanthophyllum flavescens |
1 |
0.01 |
1.00 |
0.01 |
0.21 |
0.32 |
|
Symplocos sp. |
1 |
0.01 |
1.00 |
0.50 |
0.21 |
0.32 |
|
Mangifera indica |
1 |
0.01 |
1.00 |
0.50 |
0.21 |
0.32 |
|
Sterculia foetida |
1 |
0.01 |
1.00 |
0.50 |
0.21 |
0.32 |
|
Trema orientalis |
2 |
0.01 |
1.00 |
0.50 |
0.43 |
0.65 |
|
Black berry |
3 |
0.01 |
1.50 |
1.00 |
0.43 |
0.65 |
|
Unidentified |
2 |
0.01 |
1.00 |
1.00 |
0.43 |
0.65 |
|
Unidentified |
1 |
0.01 |
1.00 |
0.50 |
0.21 |
0.32 |
|
Elaeocarpus tnberculatus |
11 |
0.05 |
2.20 |
2.50 |
2.39 |
1.63 |
|
Dysoxylum malabaricum |
16 |
0.08 |
1.00 |
8.00 |
3.47 |
5.24 |
|
Albizzia lebbeck |
3 |
0.01 |
1.00 |
1.50 |
0.65 |
0.98 |
|
Unidentified |
3 |
0.01 |
1.00 |
1.50 |
0.65 |
0.98 |
|
Unidentified |
1 |
0.01 |
1.00 |
0.50 |
0.21 |
0.32 |
|
Calophyllum inophyllum |
5 |
0.02 |
1.66 |
1.50 |
1.08 |
0.98 |
|
Holigarna jragrans |
6 |
0.03 |
1.50 |
2.00 |
1.30 |
1.31 |
|
Polyalthia fragrans |
11 |
0.05 |
1.57 |
3.50 |
2.39 |
2.29 |
|
Mesua ferrea |
16 |
0.08 |
1.23 |
6.50 |
3.47 |
4.26 |
|
Unidentified |
2 |
0.01 |
1.00 |
1.00 |
0.43 |
0.65 |
|
Nothapodytes foetida |
3 |
0.01 |
1.00 |
1.50 |
0.65 |
0.98 |
|
Unidentified |
1 |
0.01 |
1.00 |
0.50 |
0.21 |
0.32 |
|
Terminalia sp. |
1 |
0.01 |
1.00 |
0.50 |
0.21 |
0.32 |
|
Phoebe mala bar ica |
5 |
0.02 |
1.00 |
2.50 |
1.08 |
1.63 |
|
Ficus sp. |
2 |
0.01 |
1.00 |
1.00 |
0.43 |
0.65 |
|
Unidentified |
3 |
0.01 |
1.00 |
1.50 |
0.65 |
0.98 |
|
Unidentified |
1 |
0.01 |
1.00 |
0.50 |
0.21 |
0.32 |
|
Garcinia gummi-gutta |
1 |
0.01 |
1.00 |
0.50 |
0.21 |
0.32 |
|
Unidentified |
1 |
0.01 |
1.00 |
0.50 |
0.21 |
0.32 |
14
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002
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Table 2
ABUNDANCE OF TREE SPECIES AT MUKKALI (TROPICAL MOIST DECIDUOUS FOREST)
|
Species |
No. of individuals |
D |
Ab |
%F |
RD |
RF |
|
Grewia tiliaefolia |
32 |
0.32 |
1.10 |
29 |
12.50 |
13.18 |
|
Albizzia lebbeck |
49 |
0.49 |
1.08 |
45 |
19.14 |
20.45 |
|
Dalbergia latifolia |
27 |
0.27 |
1.12 |
24 |
10.54 |
10.90 |
|
Bambusa bambos |
11 |
0.11 |
1.00 |
11 |
4.29 |
5.00 |
|
Bombax ceiba |
5 |
0.05 |
1.00 |
5 |
1.95 |
2.27 |
|
Sapindus laurifolius |
1 |
0.01 |
1.00 |
1 |
0.39 |
0.45 |
|
Terminalia paniculata |
39 |
0.39 |
1.30 |
30 |
15.23 |
13.63 |
|
Emblica officinalis |
7 |
0.07 |
1.00 |
7 |
2.73 |
3.18 |
|
Xylia xylocarpa |
5 |
0.05 |
1.00 |
5 |
1.95 |
2.27 |
|
Pterocarpus marsupium |
2 |
0.02 |
1.00 |
2 |
0.78 |
0.90 |
|
Ficus racemosa |
7 |
.0.07 |
1.00 |
7 |
2.73 |
3.18 |
|
Terminalia bellerica |
1 |
0.01 |
1.00 |
1 |
0.39 |
0.45 |
|
Lagerstroemia microcarpa |
6 |
0.06 |
1.20 |
5 |
2.34 |
2.27 |
|
Cassia fistula |
2 |
0.02 |
1.00 |
2 |
0.78 |
0.90 |
|
Tetrameles nudiflora |
l |
0.01 |
1.00 |
2 |
0.39 |
0.45 |
|
Terminalia chebula |
16 |
0.16 |
1.45 |
11 |
6.25 |
5.00 |
|
Haldina cordifolia |
1 |
0.01 |
1.00 |
1 |
0.39 |
0.45 |
|
Scleichera oleosa |
3 |
0.03 |
1.00 |
3 |
1.17 |
1.36 |
|
Spondias sp. |
2 |
0.02 |
1.00 |
2 |
0.78 |
0.90 |
|
Erythrina stricta |
6 |
0.06 |
1.20 |
5 |
2.34 |
2.27 |
|
Macaranga sp. |
1 |
0.01 |
1.00 |
1 |
0.39 |
0.45 |
|
Others |
32 |
0.37 |
1.45 |
22 |
12.50 |
10.00 |
|
Table 3 |
||||||
|
ABUNDANCE OF TREE SPECIES AT MUKKALI (COFFEE ESTATE) |
||||||
|
Species |
No. of individuals |
D |
Ab |
%F |
RD |
RF |
|
Terminalia paniculata |
49 |
0.49 |
1.25 |
39 |
15.75 |
15.61 |
|
Grevillea robusta |
47 |
0.47 |
1.38 |
34 |
15.11 |
14.34 |
|
Dalbergia latifolia |
31 |
0.31 |
1.29 |
24 |
9.96 |
10.12 |
|
Kydia calycina |
1 |
0.01 |
1.00 |
1 |
0.32 |
0.42 |
|
Pterocarpus marsupium |
2 |
0.02 |
1.00 |
2 |
0.64 |
0.84 |
|
Xylia xylocarpa |
16 |
0.16 |
1.45 |
11 |
5.14 |
4.66 |
|
Terminalia bellerica |
10 |
0.10 |
1.11 |
9 |
2.21 |
3.79 |
|
Cassia fistula |
6 |
0.06 |
1.20 |
5 |
1.92 |
2.10 |
|
Albizzia lebbeck |
25 |
0.25 |
1.31 |
19 |
8.03 |
8.01 |
|
Grewia tiliaefolia |
24 |
0.24 |
1.33 |
18 |
7.71 |
7.59 |
|
Lagerstroemia sp. |
15 |
0.15 |
1.00 |
15 |
4.82 |
6.32 |
|
Eucalyptus sp. |
1 |
0.01 |
1.00 |
1 |
0.32 |
0.42 |
|
Erythrina stricta |
37 |
0.37 |
1.85 |
20 |
11.89 |
8.43 |
|
Carica papaya |
2 |
0.02 |
1.00 |
2 |
0.64 |
0.84 |
|
Ficus racemosa |
4 |
0.04 |
1.00 |
4 |
1.28 |
1.68 |
|
Terminalia chebula |
10 |
0.10 |
1.11 |
9 |
3.21 |
3.79 |
|
Bambusa bambos |
2 |
0.02 |
1.00 |
2 |
0.64 |
0.84 |
|
Schleichera oleosa |
1 |
0.01 |
1.00 |
2 |
0.32 |
0.42 |
|
Bauhinia sp. |
1 |
0.01 |
1.00 |
1 |
0.32 |
0.42 |
|
Emblica officinalis |
1 |
0.01 |
1.00 |
1 |
0.32 |
0.42 |
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002
15
STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION OF BIRD COMMUNITIES
Silent Valley
30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 >301
Girth (cm)
Mukkali
160
30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270
Girth (cm)
Fig. 5: Girth class distribution of trees at Silent Valley and Mukkali
and that of the estate was 1 1 .28. Shannon- Wener diversity index of trees at Mukkali was 2.57.
Occurrence of bird species: Silent Valley. Ninety-nine taxa from 10 Orders and 3 1 Families
were recorded from Silent Valley. Occurrence of birds in different months over the study period is given in Table 4. Six species were recorded in all the months, namely blossom-headed parakeet
16
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002
STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION OF BIRD COMMUNITIES
Table 4
OCCURRENCE OF BIRDS AT SILENT VALLEY IN DIFFERENT MONTHS (1988-1993)
|
SI. No Species |
Months |
||||||||||||
|
J |
F |
M |
A |
M |
J |
J |
A |
S |
0 |
N |
D |
||
|
42 |
Ardeola grayii * |
P |
- |
P |
- |
P |
P |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
|
124 |
Elanus caeruleus |
P |
P |
P |
- |
- |
- |
- |
P |
- |
- |
- |
- |
|
135 |
Haliastur indus * |
- |
- |
P |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
p |
- |
- |
|
139 |
Accipiter badius * |
- |
- |
P |
- |
- |
- |
P |
- |
- |
- |
P |
- |
|
172 |
Ictinaetus malayensis |
P |
- |
- |
P |
P |
P |
- |
- |
P |
- |
P |
P |
|
196 |
Spilornis cheela |
- |
- |
P |
- |
P |
- |
- |
P |
- |
p |
P |
- |
|
211 |
Falco sp. |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
P |
P |
|
263 |
Perdicula erythrorhyncha * |
P |
P |
P |
P |
P |
P |
P |
P |
- |
- |
- |
P |
|
275 |
Galloperdix spadicea * |
- |
- |
P |
- |
- |
- |
- |
P |
- |
- |
P |
- |
|
301 |
Gallus sonneratii |
P |
P |
P |
P |
P |
P |
P |
- |
P |
p |
P |
P |
|
496 |
Treron pompadora |
P |
- |
P |
P |
P |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
|
503 |
Treron phoenicoptera* |
P |
- |
P |
- |
P |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
P |
P |
|
506 |
Ducula aenea |
P |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
|
510 |
Ducula badia * |
P |
P |
P |
P |
- |
- |
- |
P |
- |
- |
- |
- |
|
516 |
Columba livia* |
- |
- |
P |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
|
521 |
Columba elphinstonii* |
- |
P |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
|
537 |
Streptopelia chinensis |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
P |
|
542 |
Chalcophaps indica* |
P |
- |
P |
P |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
P |
P |
|
550 |
Psittacula krameri |
P |
- |
P |
- |
P |
P |
- |
P |
P |
p |
P |
P |
|
558 |
Psittacula cyanocephala |
P |
P |
P |
P |
P |
P |
P |
P |
P |
p |
P |
P |
|
564 |
Psittacula columboides |
P |
- |
P |
P |
- |
- |
P |
P |
- |
- |
P |
P |
|
566 |
Loriculus vernalis |
P |
- |
P |
- |
- |
- |
- |
P |
- |
p |
P |
P |
|
569 |
Clamator coromandus |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
P |
- |
- |
- |
- |
|
600 |
Centropus sinensis |
- |
- |
P |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
|
664 |
Asio flammeus |
- |
- |
P |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
|
692 |
Zoonayena sylvatica |
- |
P |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
P |
- |
- |
- |
P |
|
712 |
Harpactes fasciatus |
- |
- |
P |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
|
744 |
Merops leschenaulti |
P |
- |
- |
P |
- |
- |
- |
P |
- |
- |
- |
P |
|
768 |
Ocyceros griseus |
P |
P |
P |
- |
- |
P |
P |
- |
P |
- |
- |
P |
|
776 |
Buceros bicornis |
- |
P |
- |
- |
- |
P |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
|
785 |
Megalaima viridis |
P |
P |
P |
P |
P |
P |
- |
P |
P |
p |
P |
P |
|
798 |
Picumnus innominatus |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
P |
P |
- |
- |
- |
|
821 |
Dinopium benghalense |
P |
P |
P |
P |
P |
P |
P |
P |
P |
p |
P |
P |
|
825 |
Dinopium javanense |
P |
P |
- |
P |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
|
830 |
Dryocopus javensis* |
P |
- |
- |
P |
P |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
|
856 |
Hemicircus canente |
- |
- |
- |
P |
P |
P |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
|
867 |
Pitta brachyura |
P |
P |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
P |
|
919 |
Hirundo tahitica |
P |
- |
P |
P |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
P |
P |
|
923 |
Hirundo daurica |
P |
P |
P |
P |
P |
P |
- |
P |
P |
p |
P |
P |
|
949 |
Lanius cristatus |
P |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
|
952 |
Oriolus oriolus |
P |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
|
954 |
Oriolus chinensis * |
P |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
P |
|
958 |
Oriolus xanthornus |
P |
- |
P |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
|
963 |
Dicrurus macrocercus |
P |
P |
P |
P |
P |
- |
- |
P |
- |
p |
P |
P |
|
967 |
Dicrurus caerulescens* |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
P |
P |
|
971 |
Dicrurus aeneus |
- |
P |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
p |
P |
- |
|
977 |
Dicrurus paradiseus |
P |
P |
P |
P |
P |
P |
P |
P |
P |
- |
P |
P |
|
1006 |
Acridotheres tristis |
- |
- |
- |
- |
P |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
|
1015 Gracula religiosa |
P |
P |
P |
P |
P |
P |
- |
- |
P |
- |
P |
P |
|
|
1032 Dendrocittavagabunda |
“ |
“ |
“ |
" |
~ |
“ |
P |
" |
” |
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002
17
STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION OF BIRD COMMUNITIES
Table 4 (contd.)
OCCURRENCE OF BIRDS AT SILENT VALLEY IN DIFFERENT MONTHS (1988-1993)
|
SI. No. Species |
Months |
|||||||||||
|
J |
F |
M |
A |
M |
J |
J |
A |
S |
0 |
N |
D |
|
|
1 034 Dendrocitta leucogastra |
P |
P |
P |
P |
P |
P |
P |
P |
P |
p |
P |
P |
|
1054 Corvus macrorhynchos |
- |
- |
P |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
|
|
1081 Pericrocotus jlammeus |
P |
- |
P |
P |
P |
P |
P |
P |
P |
p |
P |
P |
|
1098 Aegithina tiphia |
- |
- |
- |
P |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
|
1 1 03 Chloropsis aurijrons |
P |
- |
- |
P |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
|
1109 Irena puella |
- |
- |
- |
P |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
|
|
1116 Pycnonotus melanicterus |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
P |
- |
|
1 1 20 Pycnonotus jocosus |
P |
P |
P |
P |
P |
P |
P |
P |
P |
p |
- |
P |
|
1128 Pycnonotus cafer |
- |
- |
P |
- |
- |
- |
P |
P |
- |
- |
P |
P |
|
1144 lole indicus |
P |
P |
P |
P |
P |
P |
P |
P |
P |
p |
P |
P |
|
1 1 48 Hypsipetes leucocephalus |
P |
P |
P |
P |
- |
- |
- |
- |
P |
- |
P |
P |
|
1154 Pellorneum ruficeps |
- |
- |
P |
- |
- |
- |
P |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
|
1 1 74 Pomatorhinus schisticeps |
P |
- |
- |
P |
P |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
|
1 224 Rhopocichla atriceps * |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
P |
P |
- |
- |
- |
|
1259 Turdoides subrufus |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
P |
|
1265 Turdoides striatus |
P |
P |
P |
P |
P |
P |
P |
P |
P |
p |
P |
P |
|
1267 Turdoides affinis |
- |
P |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
|
1 407 Muscicapa daurica * |
- |
- |
P |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
|
1408 Muscicapa muttui |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
P |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
|
1435 Cyornis pallipes* |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
P |
- |
|
1442 Cyornis tickelliae |
P |
P |
P |
- |
P |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
P |
|
1 446 Eumyias albicaudata * |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
P |
|
1461 Terps iphone paradis i |
P |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
P |
- |
|
1601 Phylloscopus sp . |
P |
P |
- |
- |
P |
P |
- |
- |
P |
- |
P |
P |
|
1661 Copsychus saularis |
- |
- |
- |
P |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
|
|
1700 Saxicola caprata |
P |
P |
P |
P |
P |
P |
P |
P |
P |
- |
P |
P |
|
1 728 Myiophonus horsfieldii |
P |
P |
P |
P |
P |
P |
P |
P |
P |
p |
- |
P |
|
1733 Zoothera citrina |
P |
P |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
P |
P |
|
1752 Turdus merula |
P |
- |
- |
P |
- |
P |
■ - |
- |
- |
- |
P |
P |
|
1794 Parus major |
- |
- |
- |
- |
P |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
|
1809 Parus xanthogenys |
- |
- |
P |
P |
P |
P |
P |
- |
- |
- |
P |
- |
|
1838 Sitta frontalis |
- |
- |
- |
P |
P |
P |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
|
1852 Anthus novaeseelandiae* |
P |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
|
1874 Dendronanthus indica |
- |
- |
- |
P |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
|
1876 Motacillaflava |
P |
P |
P |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
P |
p |
P |
P |
|
1 8 84 Motacilla cinerea * |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
P |
- |
|
1892 Dicaeum agile* |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
■ - |
p |
- |
- |
|
1 899 Dicaeum erythrorhynchos* |
P |
- |
P |
- |
P |
P |
- |
P |
P |
- |
P |
- |
|
1 908 Nectar inia zeylonica |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
P |
- |
- |
- |
|
1 909 Nectarinia minima |
P |
P |
P |
P |
- |
P |
P |
P |
P |
p |
P |
P |
|
1912 Nectarinia lotenia |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
P |
p |
- |
- |
|
1 93 1 Arachnothera longirostra |
- |
P |
P |
P |
P |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
|
1933 Zosterops palpebrosus |
- |
- |
- |
P |
P |
P |
- |
P |
P |
- |
P |
- |
|
1 966 Lonchura malabarica |
P |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
|
1973 Lonchura kelaarti |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
P |
- |
- |
- |
|
1 974 Lonchura punctulata* |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
P |
|
1978 Lonchura malacca |
P |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
P |
- |
- |
- |
P |
|
|
20 1 3 Carpodacus erythrinus |
P |
P |
P |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
■- |
- |
P |
|
* = Recorded only from Silent Valley, P = Present; (-) Not recorded |
||||||||||||
|
Serial numbers correspond to the Handbook of Ali and Ripley (1983). |
18
JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002
STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION OF BIRD COMMUNITIES
( Psittacula roseata), lesser golden-backed woodpecker ( Dinopium benghalense), white- bellied treepie (Dendrocitta leucogastra ), yellow- browed bulbul ( Iole indica) and Malabar whistling-thrush ( Myiophonus horsfieldii). The most common species found at Silent Valley was the yellow-browed bulbul followed by the white- cheeked barbet ( Megalaima viridis), pied bushchat {Saxicola caprata) and common hill- myna (Gracula religiosa). The Commonness and Dominance Index of 10 selected species at Silent Valley is given in Table 5. The dominant species in the community at Silent Valley were yellow- browed bulbul, black-crested bulbul ( Pycnonotus melanicterus ), common hill-myna, jungle babbler ( Turdoides striatus) and pied bushchat. Thirty species recorded only from the Silent Valley are indicated with an asterisk in Table 4. Eight endemic species restricted to the Western Ghats: Nilgiri wood-pigeon ( Columba
elphinstonii), bluewinged parakeet ( Psittacula columboides ), Malabar grey hornbill ( Ocyceros griseus), Indian scimitar-babbler ( Pomatorhinus schisticeps), Nilgiri flycatcher ( Eumyias albicaudata), whitebellied blue flycatcher ( Cyornis pallipes), small sunbird ( Nectarinia minima ) and white-bellied treepie were recorded from the area. Among these, the Nilgiri wood pigeon is a globally threatened species. Number of individuals of each species recorded from the
Table 5
COMMONNESS AND DOMINANCE INDEX OF SELECTED SPECIES AT SILENT VALLEY (TROPICAL EVERGREEN FOREST)
No. Species Commonness Dominance
Index Index
|
1. |
Hypsipetes indicus |
6.29 |
20.33 |
|
2. |
Hypsipetes leucocephalus |
1.32 |
9.27 |
|
3. |
Gracula religiosa |
1.44 |
8.04 |
|
4. |
Saxicola caprata |
1.44 |
4.29 |
|
5. |
Megalaima viridis |
1.78 |
4.19 |
|
6. |
Pycnonotus jocosus |
1.18 |
3.38 |
|
7. |
Myiophonus horsfieldii |
0.98 |
1.92 |
|
8. |
Gallus sonneratii |
0.96 |
2.00 |
|
9. |
Dendrocitta leucogastra |
0.83 |
1.63 |
|
10. |
Dinopium benghalense |
0.81 |
1.52 |
transect is given in Appendix 1.
Mukkali : Ninety-six taxa from 10 Orders and 30 Families were recorded from Mukkali. Monthly distribution of various species is given in Table 6. Seven species, namely spotted dove Streptopelia chinensis , white-cheeked barbet ( Megalaima viridis) lesser golden-backed woodpecker, greater racket-tailed drongo ( Dicrurus paradiseus), red-whiskered bulbul, redvented bulbul ( Pycnonotus jocosus ) and jungle babbler were recorded in all the months. The most common species were the black drongo {Dicrurus macrocercus), white-cheeked barbet, jungle babbler, redvented bulbul and greater racket-tailed drongo. Jungle babbler, red- whiskered bulbul and black drongo were the most dominant species. The Dominance and Commonness Index of 10 selected species is given in Table 7. Twenty-one species recorded only from Mukkali are marked with an asterisk in Table 6. Altogether 137 taxa of birds were recorded from both the vegetation types in this study. Number of individuals, from the transect, in each species is given in Appendix I.
Changes in bird species richness : Distinct changes in the species composition was recorded among the birds of the Silent Valley and Mukkali over different months. During the monsoon months, the number of species present in Silent Valley was low. But as the rain stopped, new species arrived and a maximum of fifty-five species were recorded in January (Table 8). Reduction in species richness during the monsoon season was observed throughout the study period. Similarly, a surge in species richness was recorded during summer, in all the years. A similar trend was observed in Mukkali. No significant difference in bird species richness, between years in monsoon (X2 = 4.28; P=<0.05) and summer (X2 =8.92; P=<0.05) was seen at Silent Valley. But at Mukkali, a significant difference was observed between years in monsoon (X2 = 38.97*; P=<0.001) and summer (X2 = 14.64; P=<0.001) seasons.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002
19
STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION OF BIRD COMMUNITIES
Table 6
OCCURRENCE OF BIRDS AT MUKKALI IN DIFFERENT MONTHS (1988-1993)
|
S. No. |
Species |
Months |
|||||||||||
|
J |
F |
M |
A |
M |
J |
J |
A |
S |
0 |
N |
D |
||
|
124 |
Elams caeruleus |
P |
_ |
_ |
P |
. |
P |
P |
. |
P |
p |
P |
P |
|
139 |
Accipiter badius |
- |
- |
- |
P |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
|
172 |
Ictinaetus malayensis |
- |
- |
P |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
p |
- |
- |
|
196 |
Spilomis cheela |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
P |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
P |
|
211 |
Falco sp. |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
P |
- |
- |
- |
|
301 |
G alius sonneratii |
P |
P |
P |
P |
P |
- |
- |
- |
P |
p |
P |
P |
|
496 |
Treron pompadora |
- |
- |
- |
- |
P |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
|
537 |
Streptopelia chinensis |
P |
P |
P |
P |
P |
P |
P |
P |
P |
p |
P |
P |
|
550 |
Psittacula krameri |
P |
P |
P |
P |
P |
P |
P |
- |
P |
p |
P |
P |
|
558 |
Psittacula cyanocephala |
P |
P |
P |
P |
- |
- |
- |
- |
P |
p |
P |
P |
|
564 |
Psittacula columboides |
- |
P |
P |
P |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
|
566 |
Loriculus vernalis |
- |
P |
P |
P |
P |
P |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
|
573 |
Hiercoccyx varius* |
- |
- |
- |
- |
P |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
|
|
590 |
Eudynamys scolopacea* |
- |
- |
P |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
|
600 |
Centropus sinensis |
- |
- |
- |
- |
P |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
P |
|
636 |
Glaucidium radiatum |
- |
- |
P |
P |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
P |
|
664 |
Asio jlammeus |
- |
P |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
|
712 |
Harpactes fasciatus |
- |
- |
P |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
P |
- |
P |
- |
|
736 |
Halcyon smyrnensis * |
- |
- |
P |
P |
- |
P |
P |
- |
- |
- |
P |
P |
|
744 |
Merops leschenaulti |
- |
- |
- |
P |
P |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
P |
P |
|
763 |
Upupa epops* |
- |
- |
P |
- |
- |
P |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
P |
|
768 |
Ocyceros griseus |
- |
- |
- |
P |
- |
P |
P |
- |
- |
- |
- |
P |
|
776 |
Buceros bicornis |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
P |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
|
785 |
Megalaima viridis |
P |
P |
P |
P |
P |
P |
P |
P |
P |
p |
P |
P |
|
815 |
Picus chlorolophus* |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
P |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
|
825 |
Dinopium javanense |
- ' |
- |
P |
- |
- |
- |
- |
P |
P |
- |
- |
P |
|
826 |
Dinopium benghalense |
P |
P |
P |
P |
P |
P |
P |
P |
P |
p |
P |
P |
|
856 |
Hemicircus canente |
- |
- |
P |
P |
- |
- |
- |
P |
- |
- |
P |
P |
|
867 |
Pitta brachyura |
- |
P |
P |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
|
919 |
Hirundo tahitica |
P |
P |
P |
- |
P |
- |
- |
P |
- |
- |
P |
P |
|
923 |
Hirundo daurica |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
P |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
|
933 |
Lanius excubitor* |
- |
- |
P |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
|
940 |
Lanius vittatus* |
- |
- |
P |
- |
P |
P |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
|
946 |
Lanius schach * |
P |
P |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
|
952 |
Oriolus oriolus |
- |
P |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
|
958 |
Oriolus xanthornus |
- |
P |
P |
P |
P |
P |
- |
- |
P |
- |
P |
- |
|
963 |
Dicrurus macrocercus |
P |
P |
P |
P |
P |
P |
P |
- |
P |
p |
P |
P |
|
971 |
Dicrurus aeneus |
P |
P |
- |
P |
- |
P |
P |
P |
P |
p |
P |
- |
|
973 |
Dicrurus hottentottus* |
- |
- |
- |
- |
P |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
|
977 |
Dicrurus paradiseus |
P |
P |
P |
P |
P |
P |
P |
P |
P |
p |
P |
P |
|
1006 |
Acridotheres tristis |
P |
P |
P |
P |
P |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
|
1009 |
Acridotheres fuscus |
- |
P |
P |
- |
P |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
|
1015 |
Gracula religiosa |
P |
P |
- |
- |
P |
P |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
|
1032 |
Dendrocitta vagabunda |
P |
- |
P |
P |
P |
- |
P |
P |
P |
p |
P |
- |
|
1034 |
Dendrocitta leucogastra |
P |
- |
P |
- |
P |
P |
P |
- |
P |
- |
P |
- |
|
1049 |
Corvus splendens * |
- |
P |
- |
- |
P |
- |
P |
- |
P |
- |
P |
- |
|
1054 |
Corvus macrorhynchos |
P |
- |
P |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
|
1077 |
Coracina melanoptera* |
- |
- |
P |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
P |
- |
- |
- |
|
1081 |
Pericrocotus Jlammeus |
P |
“ |
P |
P |
P |
P |
“ |
P |
p |
P |
P |
20
JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002
STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION OF BIRD COMMUNITIES
Table 6 (contd.)
OCCURRENCE OF BIRDS AT MUKKALI IN DIFFERENT MONTHS (1988-1993)
|
S. No. |
Species |
Months |
|||||||||||
|
J |
F |
M |
A |
M |
J |
J |
A |
S |
0 |
N |
D |
||
|
1098 |
Aegithina tiphia |
P |
P |
P |
- |
- |
P |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
|
1103 |
Chloropsis aurifrons |
P |
- |
P |
P |
- |
P |
P |
- |
P |
- |
P |
P |
|
1108 |
Chloropsis cochinchinensis* |
- |
P |
- |
- |
P |
- |
- |
- |
- |
p |
- |
- |
|
1109 |
Irena puella |
- |
- |
- |
P |
- |
P |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
|
1116 |
Pycnonotus melanicterus gularis |
- |
- |
P |
P |
- |
- |
- |
P |
- |
- |
- |
- |
|
1120 |
Pycnonotus jocosus |
P |
P |
P |
P |
P |
P |
P |
P |
P |
p |
P |
P |
|
1128 |
Pycnonotus cafer |
P |
P |
P |
P |
P |
P |
P |
P |
P |
p |
P |
P |
|
1144 |
Hypsipetes indicus |
P |
P |
P |
P |
- |
P |
P |
P |
P |
p |
P |
P |
|
1148 |
Hypsipetes leucocephalus |
P |
- |
P |
- |
- |
P |
- |
- |
P |
p |
P |
P |
|
1174 |
Pomatorhinus schisticeps |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
p |
- |
- |
|
1259 |
Turdoides subrufus |
- |
P |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
p |
- |
- |
|
1265 |
Turdoides striatus |
P |
P |
P |
P |
P |
P |
P |
P |
P |
p |
P |
P |
|
1267 |
Turdoides affinis |
P |
- |
P |
P |
P |
P |
- |
- |
- |
p |
P |
- |
|
1407 |
Muscicapa latirostris |
- |
P |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
P |
- |
P |
- |
|
1408 |
Muscicapa muttui |
P |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
|
|
1409 |
Muscicapa ruficauda* |
P |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
|
1427 |
Ficedula nigrorufa * |
P |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
|
1445 |
Eumyias thalassina * |
P |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
|
1461 |
Terpsiphone paradisi |
- |
- |
P |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
P |
|
1538 |
Orthotomus sutorius |
- |
- |
- |
P |
P |
- |
- |
- |
- |
p |
P |
- |
|
1601 |
Phylloscopus sp. |
P |
P |
- |
- |
P |
- |
- |
- |
- |
p |
P |
- |
|
1661 |
Copsychus saularis |
P |
P |
P |
P |
P |
P |
P |
- |
P |
- |
P |
P |
|
1700 |
Saxicola caprata |
P |
P |
P |
- |
- |
P |
- |
P |
P |
p |
P |
P |
|
1726 |
Monticola solitarius |
P |
P |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
P |
- |
- |
- |
- |
|
1728 |
Myiophonus horsfieldii |
- |
- |
P |
P |
- |
P |
P |
P |
- |
- |
P |
- |
|
1733 |
Zoothera citrina |
P |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
|
1794 |
Parus major |
P |
P |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
|
1809 |
Parus xanthogenys |
- |
P |
P |
- |
- |
- |
P |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
|
1838 |
Sitta frontalis |
- |
- |
- |
- |
P |
P |
- |
- |
- |
p |
- |
- |
|
1874 |
Dendronanthus indica |
P |
- |
P |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
|
1876 |
Motacilla flava |
P |
P |
P |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
P |
p |
P |
P |
|
1885 |
Motacilla alba * |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
p |
- |
- |
|
1899 |
Dicaeum erythrorhynchos |
P |
P |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
P |
|
1908 |
Nectarinia zeylonica |
- |
P |
- |
- |
P |
- |
- |
- |
P |
p |
P |
P |
|
1909 |
Nectarinia minima |
P |
- |
P |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
P |
- |
|
1912 |
Nectarinia lotenia |
- |
P |
- |
P |
- |
- |
- |
- |
P |
- |
- |
- |
|
1931 |
Arachnothera longirostra |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
P |
- |
|
1933 |
Zosterops palpebrosus |
- |
P |
- |
- |
- |
P |
- |
- |
- |
- |
P |
- |
|
1949 |
Petronia xanthocollis * |
- |
P |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
|
1973 |
Lonchura kelaarti |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
P |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
|
1978 |
Lonchura malacca |
P |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
P |
- |
P |
p |
- |
- |
* = Recorded only from Mukkali, P = Present, (-) Not recorded; Serial numbers correspond to Handbook of Ali and Ripley (1983)
Discussion
Vegetation: The higher rate of recruitment of new seedlings at Silent Valley was mainly due to the protection afforded to the National Park and adjacent forests, and its distance from
human settlements. Fire and tree felling appeared to have thinned this tract. One hundred and one dead trees were recorded on both sides of the transect, within a width of 1 0 m at Silent Valley, whereas only 1 0 such were recorded from Mukkali. However, at Mukkali, the forests being
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002
21
STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION OF BIRD COMMUNITIES
Table 7
COMMONNESS AND DOMINANCE INDEX OF SELECTED SPECIES AT MUKKALI (MOIST DECIDUOUS FOREST)
|
No. |
Species |
Commonness Index |
Dominance Index |
|
1. |
Dicrurus macrocercus |
2.08 |
5.94 |
|
2. |
Megalaima viridis |
2.04 |
5.47 |
|
3. |
Turdoides striatus |
1.74 |
19.08 |
|
4. |
Pycnonotus cafer |
1.47 |
4.61 |
|
5. |
Dicrurus paradiseus |
1.17 |
3.17 |
|
6. |
Iole indicus |
0.89 |
3.13 |
|
7. |
Streptopelia chinensis |
0.85 |
2.20 |
|
8. |
Dinopium benghalense |
0.83 |
2.09 |
|
9. |
Copsychus saularis |
0.70 |
1.94 |
|
10. |
Psittacula cyanocephala |
0.68 |
3.42 |
Moist Deciduous, trees with a height of more than 30 m were less and due to selective felling in this area in earlier periods, trees of more than 270 cm GBH were few. As the quadrats assessed for percentage tree composition were on both sides of the transect line, it is quite natural that pioneer species like Macaranga peltata and M indica were abundant in the area. This tract had a history of fire during early 1980s, i.e. before the area was declared a National Park. Maturity Index showed a lower value, which is usually obtained in the stages of succession. Diversity of tree species was high, which is correlated with the bird density.
At Mukkali, no major difference was seen in the occurrence of tree species in the forest areas and estate. Both areas had the same number of tree species.
Birds: Composition and diversity of trees have a great influence on the occurrence of birds. During this study, birds were observed 4,500
Table 8
MONTHLY VARIATION IN THE BIRD SPECIES RICHNESS AT SILENT VALLEY AND MUKKALI (MEAN)
|
Area |
Months |
|||||||||
|
J |
F |
M |
A |
M J |
J |
A |
S O |
N |
D |
|
|
Silent Valley |
55 |
42 |
46 |
34 |
40 23 |
26 |
27 |
34 21 |
39 |
42 |
|
Mukkali |
46 |
36 |
53 |
44 |
29 43 |
25 |
17 |
33 28 |
38 |
27 |
times, in which a total of 9,921 birds were counted. Of the 137 species identified from the two vegetation types, 21 migrant species were from Silent Valley and 1 1 were from Mukkali; others were residents. Fifty-six species were common to both the vegetation types, while 30 species were found only in the Evergreen and 21 only in the Moist Deciduous Forest. This indicates the importance of Evergreen forests in the conservation of birds. Most of the species showed only local movements. The migrants, which were recorded from Silent Valley, were the wagtails ( Motacilla sp.), common rosefinch (Carpodacus erythrinus) and red-winged crested cuckoo ( Clamator coromandus). Distinct changes in species composition were recorded among the birds of the Silent Valley and Mukkali over different months. During monsoon, the number of species present in the Silent Valley was low.
Most of the doves, pigeons, parakeets and black bulbuls ( Hypsipetes madagascariensis) were not recorded in the monsoon at Silent Valley, but were seen returning to the area with the retreat of the rain. The yellow-browed bulbul is the most common and dominant species at Silent Valley. The second common species, the white-cheeked barbet comes only sixth in dominance. From the Dominance Index, it is clear that barring a few species, all are very rare. Due to the heavy mist and low activity of birds during monsoon, it was difficult to detect them, which may be one reason for the lower numbers recorded. Also, local movement of species like the black bulbul to the Evergreen Forest was observed during summer.
A major difference between the two bird communities lay in the composition of the bird species. The study suggests that the high diversity index of vegetation is an indication of increased bird density in tropical forests (Table 9). More unique and endemic species were recorded from the Evergreen Forest, which showed the influence of vegetation on species
22
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002
STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION OF BIRD COMMUNITIES
Table 9
COMPARISON OF BIRD COMMUNITY PARAMETERS WITH DIVERSITY INDICES OF VEGETATION
|
Areas |
Vegetation indices |
Bird community parameters |
||||
|
Maturity Index |
Diversity Index H' |
Species Richness |
Density* |
Diversity Index H'* |
Endemic Species |
|
|
Silent Valley |
2.85 |
2.91 |
99 |
1,122/km2 |
3.30 |
8 |
|
Mukkali |
10.00 |
2.57 |
96 |
780/km2 |
3.45 |
4 |
*Jayson and Mathew (2000a)
composition of birds. It seems that rare species like the great pied hornbill (Buceros bicornis ) and the great black woodpecker ( Dryocopus javensis) were affected severely during the pre- survey period of the abandoned hydroelectric project, because most of the dry trees were burnt for firewood and the great pied hombill was hunted for its flesh (Vijayan and Balakrishnan 1977). Presence of endemic and globally threatened species showed the conservation value of Tropical Evergreen forests at Silent Valley.
Acknowledgements
Funds for the project were provided by the Department of Environment and Forests, Govt, of India, and statistical analyses were carried out with the help of Dr. K.A. Mercey, Asst. Prof, Kerala Agricultural University. Dr. Lalitha Vijayan and Dr. Ramakrishnan Palat provided valuable suggestions in the initial phase of the study. We thank the field staff of Silent Valley National Park for their help.
References
Ali, S. (1969): The Birds of Kerala. Oxford University Press, Bombay. Pp. 444.
Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1983): Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan. Oxford University Press, Oxford. Pp. 737.
Anon. (1990): Silent Valley National Park: Nomination Dossier for World Heritage List. Kerala Forest Department, Trivandrum, India. Pp. 66.
Beedy, E.C. (1981): Bird communities and forest structure in the Sierra Nevada of California. Condor 83(2): 97-105.
Burnham, K.P., D.R. Anderson & J.L. Laake (1980): Estimation of density from line transect sampling of biological populations. Wildlife Monograph Number 72. Pp. 202.
Carlson, A. (1986): A comparison of birds inhabiting pine plantation and indigenous forest patches in a tropical mountain area. Biol. Conserv. 35(3): 195-205.
Cody, M.L. (1981): Habitat selection in birds: The role of vegetation structure, competitors, and productivity. Bioscience 31(2): 107-113.
Daniels, RJ.R. ( 1 989): A conservation strategy for the birds of the Uttara Kannada District. Ph.D. Dissertation. Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore.
Daniels, R.J.R, M. Hegde & M. Gadgil (1990): Birds of the man-made ecosystems: the plantations. Proc. Indian Acad. Scif Anim. Sci.) 99(1): 79-89.
Gaston, A.G. (1979): Distribution of birds in relation to vegetation on the New Delhi ridge. J Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 75(2): 257-266.
Gandhi, T. (1986): A comparative study of birds in monoculture plantations and natural scrub near Madras. M.Sc. Dissertation. University of Bombay. Pp. 176.
Howe, R.W., T.D. Howe & H.A. Ford (1981): Bird distributions on small rain forests remnants in New South Wales. Australian Wildl. Res. 8(3): 637-652.
James, F.C. & N.O. Warmer (1982): Relationships between temperate forest bird communities and vegetation structure. Ecology 63: 159-171.
Jayson, E.A. (1994): Synecological and behavioural studies on certain species of forest birds. Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Calicut. Pp. 3 1 4.
Jayson, E.A. & D.N. Mathew (2000): Seasonal changes of tropical forest birds in the southern Western Ghats. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 97(1): 52-61.
Jayson, E.A. & D.N. Mathew (2000a): Diversity and species-abundance distribution of birds in the tropical forests of Silent Valley, Kerala. J Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 97(3): 390-399.
Karr, J.R. (1971): Structure of avian communities in selected Panama and Illinois habitats. Ecol. Monogr. 47:207-233.
Karr, J.R. & R.R. Roth (1971): Vegetation structure and
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23
STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION OF BIRD COMMUNITIES
avian diversity in several New World areas. Amer. Nat. 105: 423-435.
Katti, M.V. (1989): Bird communities of Lower Dachigam Valley, Kashmir. M.Sc. Dissertation. Saurashtra University.
Landers, P.B. & J.A. MacMahon (1980): Guilds and community organization: Analysis of an oak woodland avifauna in Sonara, Mexico. Auk 97: 35 1 - 365.
Ludwig, J.A. & J.F. Reynolds (1988): Statistical Ecology. John Wiley and Sons, New York. Pp. 337.
MacArthur, R.H. & J.W. MacArthur (1961): On bird species diversity. Ecology 50: 793-801 .
MacArthur, R.H., J.W. MacArthur & J. Preer (1962): On bird species diversity. II Prediction of bird census from habitat measurements. Amer. Nat. 96: 167-174.
MacArthur, R.H, H. Recher & M.L. Cody (1966): On the relation between habitat selection and bird species diversity. Amer. Nat. 100: 319-332.
Nair, P.V., K.K. Ramachandran & E.A. Jayson (1997): Distribution of mammals and birds in Chinnar Wildlife Sanctuary. K.F.R.I. Research Report No. 131. Pp. 31.
Nilson, S.G. (1983): The structure of bird communities of natural forests in Sweden and the grading success of birds nesting in natural cavities. Ibis 125(4): 587- 588.
Philips, J. (1959): Succession, development, the climax and complex organism. An analysis of concepts. Part 1 and 2. J. Ecol. 22: 559-571; 23: 488-508.
Pichi-Sermolli, R. (1948): An index for establishing the degree of maturity in plant communities. J. Ecol. 30: 85-90.
Ramakrishnan, P. (1983): Environmental Studies on the Birds of Malabar forest. Ph. D. Dissertation, University of Calicut.
Rice, J., B.W. Anderson & R.D. Ohmart (1984): Comparison of the importance of different habitat attributes to avian community organization. J. Wildl. Mgmt. 48(3): 895-911.
Richards, P.W. (1952): The Tropical Rain Forest, Cambridge University Press, New York. Pp. 450.
Roth, R.R. (1976): Spatial heterogeneity and birds species diversity. Ecology 57: 113-182.
Srivastava, K.K., V.J. Zacharjas, A.K. Bhardwaj & P. Mohammed Jaffer (1993): Birds of Periyar Tiger Reserve, Kerala, South India. Indian Forester 119: 816-827.
Sundaramoorthy, T. (1991): Ecology of Terrestrial birds in Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur. Ph.D. Dissertation. University of Bombay. Pp. 279.
Terborgh, J. (1985): Habitat selection in Amazonian birds In: Habitat selection in birds, (Ed.: Cody, M.L.). Academic Press, New York. Pp. 311-338.
Terborgh, J., S.K. Robinson, T.A. Parker III, Charles A. Munn & N. Pierpont (1990): Structure and organization of an Amazonian forest bird community. Ecol. Monog. 213-238.
Verner, J. & T.A. Larson (1989): Richness of breeding bird species in mixed conifer forests of the Sierra Nevada, California. Auk 106: 447-463.
Vijayan, V.S. & M. Balakrishnan (1977): Impact of Hydroelectric Project on Wildlife. Report of the first phase of study, Kerala Forest Research Institute, Peechi. Pp. 111.
Vijayan, V.S. (1978): Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary and its adjacent areas. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 75(3): 888-900.
Wiens, J.A. (1983): Avian community ecology: an iconoclastic view. In: Perspectives in Ornithology. (Eds: Brush, A.H. & G.A. Clark). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Pp. 335-403.
Wiens, J.A. (1989): The Ecology of Bird Communities. Vol. I Foundations and patterns. Cambridge University Press. Pp. 539.
Yorke, C.D. (1984): Avian community structure in two modified Malaysian habitats. Biol. Conserv. 29(4): 345-362.
Zacharias, V.J. & A.J. Gaston (1993): The birds of Waynad, southern India. Forktail 8: 11-23.
Appendix 1
TOTAL NUMBER OF EXAMPLES SEEN IN EACH BIRD SPECIES AT SILENT VALLEY AND MUKKALI
|
Species |
Abundance |
Species |
Abundance |
||
|
Silent Valley |
Mukkali |
Silent Valley |
Mukkali |
||
|
Hypsipetes indicus |
1070 |
87 |
Hirundo domicola |
180 |
- |
|
Hypsipetes madagascariensis |
488 |
48 |
Pycnonotus jocosus |
178 |
172 |
|
Gracula religiosa |
423 |
25 |
Psittacula krameri |
147 |
63 |
|
Turdoides striatus |
240 |
530 |
Dicrurus adsimilis |
128 |
165 |
|
Saxicola caprata |
226 |
39 |
Gallus sonneratii |
105 |
26 |
|
Nectarinia minima |
222 |
4 |
Lonchura malacca |
104 |
32 |
|
Megalaima viridis |
221 |
152 |
Myiophonus horsfieldii |
101 |
13 |
24
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR . 2002
STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION OF BIRD COMMUNITIES
Appendix 1 (contd.)
TOTAL NUMBER OF EXAMPLES SEEN IN EACH BIRD SPECIES AT SILENT VALLEY AND MUKKALI
Species Abundance Species Abundance
Zosterops palpebrosus Dendrocitta vagabunda Dinopium benghalense Carpodacus erythrinus Perdicula erythrorhyncha Pomatorhinus schisticeps Pericrocotus Jlammeus Pants xanthogenys Psittacula cyanocephala Treron phoenicoptera Dicrurus paradiseus Treron pompadora Cyornis tickelliae Psittacula columboides Motacilla flava Zoothera citrina Chalcophaps indica Phylloscopus sp.
Ocyceros griseus Sitta frontalis Ducula badia Dicrurus aeneus Pellorneum ruficeps Pycnonotus cafer Elanus caeruleus Loriculus vernalis Arachnothera longirostra Lonchura punctulata Dicaeum erythrorhynchos Dryocopus javensis Ictinaetus malayensis H ir undo daurica Buceros bicornis Streptopelia chinensis Nectarinia lotenia Lonchura malabarica Terpsiphone paradisi Hemicircus canente Turdoides affinis Columba elphinstonii Spilornis cheela Oriolus oriolus Turdoides subrufus Motacilla cinerea Dicaeum agile Oriolus chinensis Galloperdix spadicea Parus major Merops leschenaulti Accipiter badius
Silent Valley Mukkali
|
101 |
50 |
|
86 |
26 |
|
80 |
58 |
|
79 |
- |
|
75 |
- |
|
69 |
2 |
|
58 |
73 |
|
55 |
20 |
|
52 |
95 |
|
52 |
- |
|
43 |
88 |
|
41 |
11 |
|
41 |
- |
|
35 |
13 |
|
35 |
22 |
|
31 |
17 |
|
27 |
- |
|
27 |
11 |
|
25 |
6 |
|
23 |
4 |
|
18 |
- |
|
17 |
19 |
|
16 |
- |
|
16 |
128 |
|
14 |
5 |
|
13 |
13 |
|
13 |
1 |
|
13 |
- |
|
13 |
- |
|
12 |
- |
|
11 |
2 |
|
11 |
1 |
|
11 |
1 |
|
9 |
- |
|
8 |
9 |
|
8 |
- |
|
8 |
3 |
|
7 |
6 |
|
7 |
42 |
|
7 |
- |
|
6 |
5 |
|
6 |
1 |
|
4 |
14 |
|
4 |
- |
|
4 |
- |
|
4 |
- |
|
4 |
- |
|
3 |
13 |
|
3 |
9 |
|
3 |
1 |
Copsychus saularis Chloropsis aurifrons Haliastur indus Columba livia Cyornis pallipes Nectarinia zeylonica Zoonavena sylvatica Ducula aenea Lanius sp.
Acridotheres tristis Turdus merula Ardeola grayii Falco sp.
Dendrocitta vagabunda Clamator coromandus Eumyias albicaudata Dinopium javanense Pycnonotus melanicterus Picumnus innominatus Rhopocichla atriceps Anthus hodgsoni Hirundo sp.
Centropus sinensis Dicrurus caerulescens Picumnus innominatus Corvus macrorhynchos Aegithina tiphia Irena puella Muscicapa latirostris Asio flammeus Harpactes fasciatus Muscicapa muttui Streptopelia chinensis Eudynamys scolopacea Halcyon smyrnensis Upupa epops Picus chlorolophus Lanius vittatus Dicntrus hottentottus Acridotheres fuscus Corvus splendens Chloropsis cochinchinensis Ficedula nigrorufa Eumyias thalassina Dendronanthus indica Orthotomus sutorius Monticola solitarius Petronia xanthocollis
Silent Valley Mukkali 3
3 55
2 2 2
2 41
2
2 7
2 5
2 53
2 12
2
1 1
1 1 1
2 7
1 1
1
1
2
66
1 6
1 6
1 3
1
1 1
1 2
1 2
61 3 7 2 10 9 1
7
47
12
1
1
5
5
18
1
- = Not recorded
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002
25
INDIVIDUAL VARIATION AND SEXUAL DIMORPHISM IN THAMNOECHA UNIFORMIS (BUTLER 1875), LEPIDOPTERA: SPHINGIDAE1
Peter Smetacek2
Key words: Lepidoptera, Sphingidae, hawkmoths, Thamnoecha uniformis
Existing information about Thamnoecha uniformis (Butler 1875) is examined and the range of individual variation and sexual dimorphism in the species discussed.
Introduction
The hawkmoth Thamnoecha uniformis (Butler 1875) is a Himalayan endemic. The genus is monobasic and little is known about the species. Since the original description by Butler in 1875, only males of the species were known until Dierl (1970) described a single female from Narkanda (Himachal Pradesh).
Although Dierl (op. cit.) observed some differences between the sexes, he did not appear to have more than a single pair to hand on which he based his observations. The present study developed out of the need to place the sexes correctly without resorting to genitalic examination, a task that has caused some confusion in the past. The confusion was caused by the relatively great individual variation in such a sparingly marked species.
This moth has been recorded from Sabathu near Shimla, which is the type locality, and Narkanda in Himachal Pradesh; Katarmal and Bhimtal in Kumaon and Nagarjong and Godaveri in Nepal. It ascends to 2,700 m (Narkanda) and has been recorded from as low as 1 ,280 m (Katarmal). It will probably be found even lower in suitable localities, i.e. chir pine ( Pinus roxburghii Sarg.) forests.
The larval food plant of Thamnoecha uniformis is thought to be chir pine by a process of elimination. Dierl (op. cit.) found a larva with the characteristic form and stripe of a conifer- feeding hawkmoth close to the Sphinx L. genus on chir pine in Nepal.
'Accepted March, 2000
2Jones Estate, Bhimtal, Nainital, Uttaranchal 263 136, India.
This larva was subsequently parasitised and no moth developed out of it. Since no Indian hawkmoth was known to feed on conifers and uniformis was, at the time, the only known representative of this group in the area, and lastly, a male uniformis was found by Dierl (op. cit.) in the daytime settled on a chir pine trunk in Nagarjong, it was assumed that the larva was that of uniformis. This has, however, not been confirmed by actual breeding experiments. Although there is little reason to doubt that chir pine is the larval food plant of uniformis , it is pertinent that Sphinx ligustri L. has been recently reported from Kumaon (Smetacek 1994). While ligustri is not known to feed on conifers, the point is that uniformis is not the only representative of the group in the western Himalaya.
In the present study, T. uniformis has been recorded in every month from March through August. It is always extremely scarce, no more than one individual appearing at a time. The southwest monsoon, which dictates the flying period of most hawkmoths in this area, does not perceptibly affect the emergence pattern of uniformis. Nor has this moth been found to be affected by climatic anomalies such as drought or unusually warm winters. It has always been very scarce, even though its presumed larval food plant, chir pine, covers vast tracts in Kumaon. It may be added that the assessment of its scarcity is based on its attendance at artificial light, rather than actual examination of chir pine forests at appropriate times.
The only factor which seems to affect populations of this moth, besides larval
26
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002
INDIVIDUAL VARIATION AND SEXUAL DIMORPHISM IN TH AMNOECHA UNIFORMIS
parasites, is forest fire, which is an almost regular phenomenon in chir pine forests. None were recorded after major fires. However, the same can be said for all other hawkmoths and insects that happen to live in or near chir pine forests.
Both sexes are attracted to mercury vapour lamps of 125-160 W. They are active at dusk and during the early hours of darkness, almost never appearing after 2030 hrs in summer. Their activity at dawn has not been assessed. Unlike most hawkmoths that are active and nervous for some time after being attracted, both sexes of uniformis settle directly upon arrival and rarely change position. Usually, they select a dark surface to settle upon, but will do so on a white- washed pillar if no other convenient perch is available. They rarely settle under the glare of the lamp, preferring a shady comer. At rest, they hold their wings draped laterally over the abdomen, the short abdomen and blunt wings giving them the appearance of Notodontids rather than hawkmoths. They closely resemble the European Sphiwc pinastri L., especially at rest. Although pinastri is known to visit flowers at dusk, uniformis has never been seen visiting flowers. The following is a description of the sexes:
Thamnoecha uniformis (Butler)
1875. Hyloicus uniformis Butler. Proc. zool. Soc. Lond .: 261.
1903. Thamnoecha uniformis Rothschild & Jordan. Rev. Sphing.: 153.
Male: Length of forewing: 23-25 mm (mi hi).
Expanse: 50 mm (Dierl op. c it . ; Hampson 1892; Bell & Scott 1937) to 54 mm (Hampson 1892).
Forewing to antenna ratio: 1.76: 1.
Material Examined: 2 exs.: 5 .vii. 1 989, Katarmal 1 ,280 m Leg. R Smetacek; 2 1 .iii. 1 994, Jones Estate, Bhimtal, 1,500 m Leg. P. Smetacek.
Diagnosis: Palpi, vertex of head, thorax and abdomen brownish-grey. The sides of head black. Vertex of thorax cinereous grey. Collar and tegulae proximally fringed with black. Antennae fasciculate, terminally swollen into a club and narrow at base. Antennae more than half the length of the forewing.
Forewing grey with a proximally curved ferruginous medial band and two similar postmedial bands. The bands are distinctly marked in some individuals, nearly obsolete in others. One prominent black streak in the interspace between veins 2 (Cu2) and 3 (Cu,) and another above it in the interspace between veins 4 (M3) and 3 (Cu,). Rarely, there is a short black streak in the interspace between veins 5 (M2) and 4 (M3) as in the Nepalese specimen figured by Allen (1993). These marks are variable, one or the other might be longer or more heavily marked or one might be altogether obsolete. Dark points on the cilia at the veins. Hindwing reddish-brown, cilia grey. The verso surface is uniform grey, the cilia as on the recto surface except that on the hindwing, there are faint dark points discernible at the veins.
In the Katarmal specimen, the medial area of the fore wing recto, between the rufous bands, is darker than the rest of the wing.
Female: Length of forewing: 23 - 29 mm (mi hi).
Expanse: 53 mm (Dierl op. cit.) to 66 mm (mihi).
Forewing to antenna ratio: 2.15: 1 to 2.4:
1.
Material Examined: 6 exs.: 2.vi.l974; 18.V.1989; 6.iv.l982; 5.vi.l998; 22.viii. 1997, all collected at Jones Estate, Bhimtal, 1,500 m, Coll. P. Smetacek; 7.vi.l925 Bhimtal, Maxwell Coll., BM 1967-553 (Coll. Natural History Museum, London) (Photograph of recto surface examined)
Diagnosis: Palpi pale grey, sometimes nearly white, contrasting with the rest of the
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002
27
INDIVIDUAL VARIATION AND SEXUAL DIMORPHISM IN TH AMNOECHA UMIFORMIS
head. Vertex of head, vertex of thorax and abdomen grey. Collar and tegulae brownish-grey and defined proximally by a narrow black fringe. Antennae simple, narrow, terminally swollen into a prominent club, the tip tapering to a point but not hooked. Antennae less than half the length of the forewing.
Forewing uniformly grey, the inner area faintly ferruginous or darker grey. Traces of one medial and two postmedial ferruginous bands on the costa of some individuals. These bands never reach below vein 4 (M3). The two black streaks in the interspaces between vein 4 (M3) and vein 2 (Cu2) are usually faint and often one or both are entirely obsolete. Cilia of forewing with prominent dark points at the veins. Hindwing uniformly brownish-grey in some individuals, grey in others. Verso surface uniformly grey with a fine marginal dark line to both wings.
Discussion
From the above, it is evident that there are modest but consistent differences between the sexes, both in the external structure as well as in the pattern. The structure and length of the antennae are the most evident external structural differences. Died (1970) noted that the antennae of the female are thinner than those of the male. This is due to the fascicles on the male’s antennae rather than their actual thickness, which is more or less the same as those of the female. Dierl also stated that the antennae of the female are shorter than the male, reaching only a little over half the length of the forewing costa. In the specimens examined in the present study, the antennae of the female are less than half the length of the forewing costa, while those of the male are more than half the length of the forewing costa.
Contrary to Dierl’s (op. cit.) observation, size is not a distinguishing factor between the sexes. The usual expanse given for males by most authors is 50 mm. However, in Hampson’s (1892)
description of Protoparce uniformis Butler, he gives an expanse of 54 mm for the material examined by him. Since only males were known at the time, it follows that this measurement applies to males. In the same work, Hampson described Pseudosphinx concolor for the first time and gave a measurement of 50 mm. P. concolor turned out to be a synonym of uniformis. Bell & Scott (1937) used Hampson’s (1892) description of concolor in their description of uniformis and apparently overlooked the measurement of 54 mm given by Hampson (op. cit.) for Protoparce uniformis. This presumption is strengthened by the fact that Protoparce uniformis is not mentioned in the synonymy by Bell & Scott (op. cit.), although Pseudosphinx concolor is included.
It is noteworthy that in Hampson’s (op. cit.) description of Protoparce uniformis males, there is no mention of the horizontal black streaks on the fore wing recto between vein 2 (Cu2) and vein 4 (M3). Kitching {in litt.) notes that there are three males and four females in the collection of the Natural History Museum in London (UK). All are somewhat worn and faded, with the pattern difficult to distinguish. A specimen from this collection has been figured by D’Abrera (1986), and it is of interest that, on the basis of the characters of the antennae, the specimen is likely to be a female, not a male as stated. The specimen in the same collection from Bhimtal, of which a photograph was examined, is slightly worn, particularly on the distal half of the forewing recto. It lacks the horizontal black streaks on the forewing recto. Rothschild & Jordan (1903) note that in all the specimens examined by them, which are the three male specimens mentioned above, the tips of the antennae were broken off.
The ferruginous bands on the forewing recto are usually more strongly developed in males than in females. Besides this, only females appear to have the black marginal line on the verso surface of both wings.
28
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002
INDIVIDUAL VARIATION AND SEXUAL DIMORPHISM IN TH AMNOECHA UNIFORMIS
The black streaks on the forewing are variable, but despite Hampson’s (op. cit.) description of male Protoparce uniformis mentioned above, which lacks these streaks, I am of the opinion that these streaks are prominent in males, while in females, they may be present, or one or more might be absent. I have a female in good condition, which entirely lacks both the black streaks.
Refer
Allen, M. (1993): Marvellous Moths of Nepal. Know Nepal Series, No. 6. Rohit Kumar, Lashkar, Madhya Pradesh. Pp. 13; pi. 10.
Bell, T.R.D. & F.B. Scott (1937): The Fauna of British India including Ceylon and Burma. Moths Vol. V, Sphingidae. Taylor & Francis, London. Pp. xviii + 537; xv pi.; 1 map.
D’Abrera, B. (1986): Sphingidae Mundi. E.W. Classey, Faringdon, U.K. Pp. 8 + 226.
Dierl, W. (1970): Grundzuge Einer Okologischen Tiergeographie der Schwaermer Ostenepals. Khumbu
Acknowledgements
I am grateful to Ian J. Kitching of the Natural History Museum, London (UK) for his kind help which made this paper possible. I am also grateful to J.M. Cadiou for literature and the photograph of the specimen from Bhimtal, in the collection of the Natural History Museum, London and to the anonymous referees for their valuable suggestions.
ENCES
Himal Ergebn. Forsch.-Unt. Nep. Him. 3/3: 319-320. Hampson, G.F. ( 1 892): The Fauna of British India including Ceylon and Burma, Moths Vol. I. Taylor & Francis, London. Pp. xxiii + 527.
Rothschild, W. & K. Jordan (1903): A Revision of the Lepidopterous Family Sphingidae. Nov. Zool. 9 ( Supp .): 972 pp., 67 pis.
Smetacek, P. ( 1 994): An Annotated List of the Hawkmoths (Lepidoptera: Sphingidae) of Kumaon, N. India: A Probable Case of Faunal Drift. Rec. zool. Surv. Ind., Occ. Paper 156 : 1-55.
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29
PETA URISTA NOBILIS SINGHEI — FIRST RECORD IN INDIA AND A NOTE ON ITS TAXONOMY1
Anwaruddin Choudhury2
( With one text-figure)
Key words: Giant flying squirrel, Petaurista nobilis singhei, Arunachal Pradesh, West Kameng, northeastern India, distribution
The giant flying squirrel Petaurista nobilis singhei is known only from Bhutan. Recently, some skins were examined and live animals observed in the wild in Arunachal Pradesh in northeastern India. This is the first record for the subspecies singhei in India, and the first record for the
species P. nobilis, in northeastern India. Habitat the animal. Protected areas having this species Orchid Sanctuary, both in Arunachal Pradesh.
Introduction
Petaurista nobilis (Gray) is a poorly known giant flying squirrel, described from specimens obtained from Darjeeling, West Bengal. It is also found in the hills and mountains of Nepal and Sikkim (Ghose and Saha 1981). A new subspecies of Petaurista nobilis was described from specimens obtained in Bhutan. This new race was named singhei (Saha 1977). Larger size, richer colour and the absence of a pale mid-dorsal stripe distinguishes it from the nominate subspecies.
During field survey in western Arunachal Pradesh, I came across both live animals as well as many preserved skins, which happened to be first records for the subspecies in India with an eastward range extension. Locally, the Sherdukpen people call it Khiaw.
Study area and Methods
The study area covered West Kameng district (26° 56'-27° 50’ N, 92° 01'-92° 56' E) of Arunachal Pradesh. The area was formerly
'Accepted February, 2001
2The Rhino Foundation for Nature in NE India,
c/o Assam Co. Ltd. Bamunimaidam,
Guwahati 781 021, Assam, India.
loss and hunting are the main problems faced by are the Eaglenest Wildlife Sanctuary and Sessa
referred to as part of the Balipara Frontier Tract of Assam, and the Kameng Frontier Tract of NEFA (Northeast Frontier Agency). The terrain is hilly and mountainous (part of the Eastern Himalaya) with elevation varying from 100 m in the south to more than 7,000 m at some of the peaks in the Great Himalaya. The field work was carried out from 100 to 4,000 m. North-south and east-west flowing rivers dissect the district, making long narrow valleys (Tenga, Rupa, Shergaon, Dirang and Sangti). The highest ranges are towards the north, while the lowest elevation is in the riverbeds near the Assam- Arunachal Pradesh border (around 1 00 m above msl.). The annual rainfall ranges from less than 2,000 mm in the north to more than 3,000 mm in the south.
Several field trips were made to West Kameng (November 1997, April, July, August and November 1998, July, October and December 1 999, and April, May and October 2000) to study its wildlife. Some preserved skins were examined in the tribal villages, and the local villagers and hunters were also interviewed. The skins available in the village helped them to describe sightings. For direct observation, we made foot- transects along existing and new paths and trails, and vehicle-transects along roads and motorable tracks. Observations were aided with a pair of
30
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002
FIRST RECORD OF PETAURISTA NOBILIS SINGHEI IN INDIA
10 x 50 binoculars and 10 x 46 telescope. Photographs were taken with a Canon T50 camera with 200 mm tele lens and a Nikon FM2.
Results
External measurements and coloration:
Most of the specimens seen in different villages (skins) were examined using standard methods and photographed. The measurements are listed in Table 1 . The length of head and body ranged from 47 to 69 cm while that of tail, 51 to 61 cm.
All the specimens examined have thick, woolly, glossy hair. The saddle is a rich maroon- brown. The shoulder patches extend along the sides of the body, and in some specimens may join at the lower back (behind the dark saddle). Colour varies from rich orange-buff to rich
brownish-buff. Parachute varies from orange- yellow to ochraceous-brown. Tail-tip deep blackish or black. Underside light yellow-buff, almost uniform except near abdomen, which is richer. The dark saddle may join the dark area on head by a broad patch or a thin line. Mid- dorsal stripe present in one skin, but it is broken.
Distribution and Habitat: Specimens were examined at Morsing, Tenzinggang, Shergaon, Thungre, and Tenga Valley, while live animals were observed between Lamacamp and Ramalingam, just outside Eaglenest and Sessa Orchid Sanctuaries (Fig. 1). Coordinates and elevations are given in Table 1 . The animals were found to occur in the wild in subtropical and temperate broadleaf forests, in the mountains from 1,500 m up to 2,300 m. The habitat near Tenzinggang nullah, from where a few were shot
Fig. 1 : Map of the study area showing the places mentioned in the text (SOS Sessa Orchid Sanctuary, ENS Eaglenest Sanctuary)
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FIRST RECORD OF PETAURISTA NOBILIS SINGHEI IN INDIA
by hunters from Shergaon, is subtropical broadleaf. It may also occur in mixed broadleaf and coniferous forests (e.g., near Tenga Valley, Thungre).
Ecology: Very little is known. Like other giant flying squirrels, singhei is also nocturnal. The specimens seen live, as well as those shot by local hunters, were all sighted at night. The live animals were seen feeding on the ground, on dirt road after dusk. They preferred new roadside cuttings. On examination of the feeding sites, nothing on the ground indicated that they were taking salt or minerals directly from the earth (primates and ungulates often haunt such new cuttings or slides for salt).
A squirrel feeding on the ground almost came under our vehicle. It was rather unafraid and moved away slowly. At another site, one was by the side of the road and went down as we approached.
Conservation issues: It is apparent that habitat loss and hunting for the pot are the main threats faced by singhei. The number of skins in just a few villages indicates that many are shot every year. Many hunters do not keep the skins. Also, there is apparently no trade, save for a few skins sold to visitors or army officials. Habitat loss is mainly due to felling. However, in view of the Supreme Court judgement, large-scale cutting has currently been stopped. In the 1980s and early 1 990s, most of the forest around Rupa, Thungre, and between Rupa and Shergaon was destroyed. The habitat near Shergaon and Tenzinggang is still good. But there is no future for these areas, as the community forests have been saved temporarily by a court judgement and villagers are waiting for the clearance from the court in future. The protected areas having singhei are Eaglenest Wildlife Sanctuary (217 sq. km) and Sessa Orchid Sanctuary (100 sq. km).
Discussion
The range of the species is now extended eastwards by more than 100 km. This is also the
first record, for India, of the subspecies singhei which was known only from Bhutan (Saha 1977) where it has been recorded at Gomchu Valley ( c . 2,240-2,288 m), Paro (c. 2,440 m) and Mithangarh (c. 1,676 m). In the holotype and seven paratypes, tail length is always more than that of head and body, the difference being marginal (49:51 cm) to significant (48.7:59 cm). In the present study, in four skins, the head-body and tail were intact (Table 1). In only one case was the tail longer, while in the rest, the head and body were longer than the tail. The specimens of the present study were also larger than in previous records. The longest head and body length in Saha (1977) is given as 48.7 cm, and that of tail 59.0 cm (same specimen). In our study, all but one are larger in size (head and body max. 69 cm). However, in case of the tail only one exceeded 60.0 cm (61.0 cm). The largest specimen (overall: head-body and tail) in Saha (1977) was 107.7 cm while in the present case, it is 126.8 cm. Our records also show that there could be significant variations in the length of the tail and coloration in the species.
The nominate subspecies P. n. nobilis (Gray) is known from Darjeeling, Sikkim and Nepal (Ghose and Saha 1981).
The taxonomic status of nobilis was the subject of some controversy. The giant flying squirrels with prominent yellow shoulder patch, originally described as Sciuropterus [= Petaurista] magnificus Hodgson 1836, and Sciuropterus [= Petaurista ] nobilis Gray 1842 were synonymised by most authors. Blyth ( 1 863) treated Petaurista nobilis and Hodgson’s giant flying squirrel Petaurista magnificus as conspecific, likewise Ellerman (1963), and Ellerman and Morrison-Scott (1966). However, Wroughton (1911, 1919) treated nobilis as a separate species, but as a race of Petaurista albiventer (Gray). Corbett and Hill (1992) also treated it as a separate species.
P. magnificus and P. nobilis have been isolated from their congenerics by the presence
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FIRST RECORD OF PETAURISTA NOBILIS SINGHEl IN INDIA
Table l
MEASUREMENTS AND DETAILS OF LOCALITIES OF PETAURISTA NOBILIS SINGHEl
|
Locally |
Coordinates of Locality of Collection /Sighting |
Elevation of Locality of Collection / Sighting (m above msl) |
Head and body of skin (cm) |
Tail (cm) (up to tip of the hair) |
Remarks |
|
Thungre |
27° 07' N, 92° 25' E |
1,800+ |
47.0 |
51.0 |
April 1999 |
|
Shergaon |
27° 07' N, 92° 15'E |
2,000+ |
62.0 |
(cut) |
April 1999 |
|
Shergaon |
27° 07' N, 92° 15' E |
2,000+ |
59.5 |
57.0 |
April 1999 |
|
Shergaon |
27° 07' N, 92° 25' E |
2,000+ |
69.0 |
57 .8 |
Some of the Shergaon specimens were shot near Tenzinggang Nala (27° 06' N, 92° 12’ E) 1 500 m + elevation) |
|
Between Lamacamp and Ramalingam |
27° 09' N, 92° 27' E |
2,100-2,300 |
2 seen live at 6-6.20 p.m. December 10, 1999 |
||
|
Morsing |
27° 10' N, 92° 13' E |
2,000+ |
” |
“ |
May 2000; skin not measured |
|
Tenga Valley |
27° ll’N,92°30'E |
1,500+ |
64.0 |
61.0 |
December 1 999 |
of distinct shoulder patches. Even Ellerman (1963) concluded that the two forms were seasonal variants. One obvious reason was lack of material. Ghose and Saha (1981) showed that besides coloration, there is significant difference in the skull.
I suggest a common name “orange giant flying squirrel” for the species/subspecies.
Acknowledgements
For encouragement and support, 1 thank Ms Emily Chowdhary, Commissioner & Secretary to the Govt of Assam. For assistance during field survey in Arunachal, I thank S.N. Kalita (CCF-wildlife), M.K. Palit (former DFO- wildlife, Seijosa), C. Loma (DFO-wildlife, Seijosa), A.K. Singh (Range Officer, Ramalingam), S.K. Shome (i/c Range Officer, Ramalingam), B. Ali and B.C. Dey (both Foresters, Ramalingam), B.C. Hazarika, FG
(WL), Ramalingam; T. Hazarika, FG (terr.) Ramalingam; Anupam Sharma, botanist; Moniram Gogoi, Rajesh Pachung, Dorji Raptan, Pemba Tamang (all retrenched Sanctuary Watchers); Srimanta Tamuli and Gajen Tamang.
I also thank for their help and support, R.K. Das, DFO (wildlife) at Tezpur, Pankaj Sharma, Range Officer, Nameri National Park; N. Bhuiyan, brother-in-law of B.C. Hazarika; Nitu Phukan of Eco-camp, wife of B.C. Hazarika (FG-WL, Ramalingam), army posted at Ramalingam, Bisoy Boro, Moniram Boro, Painu Phiyang, Gajen Tamang, Bablu Dey, Mithun Sarkar, Lei Khandu Thungon of Shergaon, and the later Ledo Thungon of Extra-Assistant Commissioner’s Office at Kalaktang.
Special thanks are due to Bir Bahadur Gurung and Hakeem, for accompanying me on many of the trips, and K.N. Thungon (teacher) of Shergaon, who was my virtual host in that area.
References
Blyth, E.K. (1863): Catalogue of the Mammalia in the Corbet, G.B. & J.E. Hill (1992): The mammals of the Museum of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. Bengal Indomalayan Region: a systematic review. Oxford
Ptg. Co. Ltd., Calcutta. Pp. 187, xiii. University Press, London. Pp. 488, viii
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FIRST RECORD OF PETAUR1STA NOBILIS SINGHEI IN INDIA
Ellerman, J.R. (1963): The fauna of India including Pakistan, Burma and Ceylon. Mammalia, 3 (Rodentia) (1). Govt, of India, Delhi. Pp. 482, xxx.
Ellerman, J.R. & T.C.S. Morrison-Scott (1966): Checklist of the Palaearctic and Indian mammals, 2nd edn. British Museum, London.
Ghose, R.K. & S.S. Saha (1981): Taxonomic review of Hodgson’s giant flying squirrel Petaurista magnificus (Hodgson) (Sciuridae: Rodentia), with description of a new subspecies from Darjeeling district. West Bengal, India. J. Bombay nat. Hist.
Soc. 78: 93-102.
Saha, S.S. ( 1 977): A new subspecies of the flying squirrel, Petaurista nobilis (Gray), from Bhutan. Proc. Zool. Soc., Calcutta 28(1975): 27-29.
Wroughton, R.C. (1911): Oriental flying squirrels of the ‘ Pteromys ' group. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 20: 1012-1023.
Wroughton, R.C. (1919): Summary of the results from the Indian Mammal Survey of the Bombay Natural History Society. Part 3. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 26: 338-379. '
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THE INITIAL COLONISATION OF THE YAMUNA FLOOD PLAIN BY THE SIND SPARROW PASSER PYRRHONOTUS 1
Bill Harvey2 and Suresh C. Sharma3 ( With two text-figures and one plate)
Key words: Passer pyrrhonotus, Sind sparrow, Acacia nilotica , Haryana, canal,
colonisation
The Sind sparrow Passer pyrrhonotus appears to be spreading out of its traditional range in the Indus Basin in Pakistan and extreme northwest India. Birds were found in twelve sites near canals in eastern Haryana and north Delhi during January- August 2001 and successful breeding was first proved in June. Details of the sightings, observed habits and nesting are given with descriptions of the plumage.
Introduction
The Sind sparrow Passer pyrrhonotus was largely restricted to the Indus flood plain in Pakistan and its tributaries just extending into Punjab, in India. It was first described in 1844, but then lost to ornithologists until 1880. It took a further 50 years for it to be fully accepted as a full species; many earlier writers considered it to be a sub-species of the house sparrow Passer domesticus (Summers-Smith 1988). The synopsis (Ripley 1982) describes its range as “the plains of the Indus from Nowshera (c. 34 °N), the Jhelum district, Gurdaspur, Ferozepore and Ludhiana ... south to Sadhani, Hyderabad ( c . 25 °N) and the Nara canal in Sind.” Summers- Smith (1988) gives more detail for its Indian range; “into the Indian Punjab on the Beas river near Gurdaspur and along the Sutlej to Ladhowai (10 km north of Ludhiana)” and “found it regular along the Sutlej from Harike, east to the bridge on the main road between Ludhiana and Jullunder (Jalandhar), but not further upstream at Rupar.” There are old records from Baluchistan and neighbouring Iran (Summers- Smith 1988). Bapat (1993) records sightings in
'Accepted November, 2001
2N50 Panchsheel Park, New Delhi 110 017, India.
''Gokul Nagar, Rohtak Road, Sonipat 131 001 , Haryana, India.
1990 from Khari Nadi, c. 3 km west of Bhuj in Kutch, Gujarat, but gives very little detail. With our present knowledge of range and habitat requirements, this report requires substantiation. Apparently, the species has had a restricted range since it was discovered, with only circumstantial evidence of even short distance migrations. It is reportedly locally common within its range, but decidedly restricted to aquatic environments with trees, particularly the banks of large canals and rivers. This dependence on trees by or in water seems consistent, and claims for the species in other habitats need tabe reviewed with great care.
First recorded occurrences in the Yamuna flood plain in 2001
SCS has birdwatched in Haryana for over 25 years. He has focused particularly on the waterways and marshes. On January 3, 2001 he found a male and two female Sind sparrows in a babul tree ( Acacia nilotica) along the village road between Chitana and Juan villages (15 km north of Sonipat), about 100 m from the Delhi canal. He had never encountered this species before in Haryana. On February 21 and 23, 2001 he found a flock of eight birds (three males and five females), again in babuls, near the village of Rohat, 8 km south of Sonipat, on the banks of the Delhi canal. He saw about the same number,
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SIND SPARROW IN THE YAMUNA FLOOD PLAIN
at the same location, on March 1 1 and 3 1 , and three birds on April 6 and 22. On April 8, he found a male near Mohamedabad village, 1 1 km south of Sonipat, on the Delhi canal banks. At the same site, he observed a mating pair in the first week of May and a male on June 3. Thus, three sites within 26 km in Sonipat district held around 15 individuals, from January-June 2001.
In addition, SCS briefly saw one male accompanied by a possible female at the Bhindawas Sanctuary 80 km west-southwest of Delhi on April 22, 2001. This represents a considerable range extension from the Sonipat area. It is probably significant that both the Jawaharlal Nehru Feeder canal, which is connected with Bhindawas Lake via an escape channel, and the Delhi canal originate from the Western Yamuna canal at Sardhana Water Regulator in the Sonipat district. The Sardhana regulator is nearly 25 km north of Sonipat.
Evidence of colonization of the Yamuna flood plain in 2001
On May 13, Bill Harvey (WGH) joined SCS and others to visit his Sonipat sites. At the Mohamedabad site, at least five individuals were seen and a nest located about 3 m high near the trunk of a babul. This nest was still active on May 15, but on May 20 it was deserted. However, its discovery prompted new efforts. After negative results along several kilometres of the Najafgarh drain on May 15, WGH found a singing male at Bhindawas on June 14 and a colony of at least eight active nests, with 1 1 males and 6 females, on the edge of an incipient water bird colony on an island in the lake, on June 15. On June 28, Nikhil Devasar (a bird watcher from Delhi) and WGH visited the site again to take photographs. They found around 30 birds, half of which were newly fledged juveniles. There were also about ten adult males and five females, some of which were associated with four new nests. The colony probably held a minimum of 1 0- 12 breeding pairs
(the active heronry, which occupies two-thirds of the babuls on the island, was not examined to avoid disturbance, so the total could be two or three times that). Thus, in 2001 we obtained evidence for the first time that young Sind sparrows fledged successfully in Haryana.
SCS found the first birds in Delhi region on June 23, with a male and two females in a babul on the Delhi canal bank between Harewali and Jhinjholi villages. At one of the original sites (Juan) he found four nests and associated birds within 100 m of the Delhi canal on June 24. On June 26, 2001, SCS found individuals at two different locations along the JLN Feeder Canal, again on babuls. The latter two locations are at least 30 km northwest of Sonipat and about 15 km apart. One was in Sonipat district and the other was in Rohtak district. New nest sites were found at Tehri on the JLN Feeder Canal (2 nests) on July 3, Kakroi (5 nests) on July 6 and Fatehpur (1 nest) on July 14. On July 29 and August 12, up to 5 birds were found along the Delhi Canal near Garhi Bala. Thus, the species has been recorded in twelve separate places in Haryana State and the Delhi region, with nests located at six of them, and at least 50 individuals, excluding fledged young. This suggests that colonisation is established and records from further sites near the canals and other waterways can be expected. The distribution of these new sites is indicated in Fig. 2.
The current and historical distributions as on August 31, 2001 are indicated in Fig. 1.
Field Descriptions
Although the descriptions of this species available in various field guides are generally accurate, we did observe additional features. No individual variation has been noticed within the sexes. The species is usually initially identified by its subtly different voice, although visual features are striking in males at least, if every sparrow is examined. The species is not, in our
36
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SIND SPARROW IN THE YAMUNA FLOOD PLAIN
JAMMU
KASHMIR
HI MACH ALA PRADESH
PUNJAB
UTTARANCH.
HARYANA
RAJASTHAN
UTTAR PRADESH
MADHYA PRADESH
40 N —
35 N —
30 N —
25 N —
70 E
75 E
80 E
Fig. 1 : The world range of the Sind sparrow (light grey) and the area of new colonisation (dark grey)
view, obviously smaller than all house sparrows (often seen with or near Sind sparrows), but it is certainly slimmer, smaller headed and perhaps longer tailed. The bill is neater than that of a house sparrow with a finer, more pointed tip.
The male has a distinctive, quite high- pitched and “rocking” song chitta chitta chitta, which is distinct from the chirruping song of house sparrows. Both sexes have a soft cheep cheep call, not markedly different from that of house sparrows but quieter. The call and the song are interspersed with a quite distinct, repeated tswep tswep call reminiscent of a white wagtail Motacilla alba.
The males have a dove-grey forehead, crown and nape; paler grey on the collar and cheeks, contrasting with fairly broad sweeping stripes, from the eyes to half way round the cheeks, which are a distinct bright, russet chestnut, paler and brighter than the similar markings on male house sparrows. The mantle is rich brown with both darker and paler feather edgings, and merging into a distinctly brown back and rump, which in turn merges into narrow, grey upper tail coverts (in contrast to a male house sparrow which has the whole back, rump and upper tail coverts distinctly grey). The lesser coverts are distinctly chestnut and there
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are obvious white tips to the median coverts, adding to the bird’s overall bright appearance.
The cheeks are uniform pale grey, merging with limited or no contrast into a grey throat, breast and belly (most published illustrations
show a strong contrast between the cheeks and the underparts, but this is not always obvious in the plumages we have been observing). The distinctive black bib is quite long and narrow with straight, clean-edged sides (thus rather
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NIKHIL DEVASAR NIKHIL DEVASAR
SIND SPARROW IN THE YAMUNA FLOOD PLAIN
Harvey, Bill et al.\ Sind sparrow Passer pyrrhonotus
Plate 1
Fig. 1: Male Sind sparrow removing material from old nest to construct new one
Fig. 2: Female Sind sparrow
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SIND SPARROW IN THE YAMUNA FLOOD PLAIN
rectangular in shape) and quite unlike the round bib (whether small or large and blotched) of male house sparrows of any age. It is not the size of the bib that is important for identification, but the shape. The bills in May- June at least have all been blackish, indicating breeding condition.
The female, although superficially like a female house sparrow, is more distinctive than the field guides suggest (Plate 1, Fig. 2). The broad sweeping pale whitish supercilia run back from the eyes and contrast much more with the plain, pale brown crown and very distinct concolorous grey cheeks. These, unlike in the male, contrast quite markedly with the more house sparrow-like buffish-white throat, breast and belly. The other striking feature is the distinct pale chestnut lesser wing coverts, very similar to those of yellow-throated sparrow Petronia xanthocollis . The bill is greyish horn on the upper mandible and yellow on the lower.
The juveniles are similar to the females, but with obvious yellow gapes and fresh plumage. Young males had started developing the male head markings in late June (within two weeks of fledging at most).
Habits
Almost all observations have been of birds calling and/or singing in babul trees. Birds have frequently been observed picking food off babul leaves (or even, perhaps, eating the young leaves) and twice apparently feeding on the ground. A female has been observed feeding on a babul trunk in the manner of a tit ( Parus ). Birds have been seen collecting dry grass from the ground and feathers (from other birds' nests) in the course of nest building, and flying into reed-beds, perhaps with the same purpose. Eucalyptus and other tree species have been used as perches, but the dependence on babuls seems quite marked. There also seems to be a need to be within easy reach of reasonably natural wet grassland and reeds. Groves of babuls on canal banks, with no
such marshland vegetation close by (as at Najafgarh) do not seem to be sufficient. As yet, we have only limited observations on their feeding habits and most prolonged observations have been at nest sites.
Nesting
All nests found (25 to date) have been in babul trees. The nest is untidy, oval or semi-oval, made of dry, yellowish grasses (often intermingled with feathers) and lined with finer grasses and feathers. The entrance hole is a quarter way down from the top. It resembles a house sparrow’s nest built in the open. Both sexes contribute to the building, although the males spend much time singing and calling while perched close to the nest. In Bhindawas, it was thought that the females were inside incubating or brooding in some cases. All the Sonipat area nests were “free-standing” and close to babul trunks in thick foliage (made so by pruning for fodder). Two nests were in one tree, but the other three were in their own trees.
Nine of the nests at Bhindawas were in the base of other birds’ nests. We can find no reference to such breeding sites in the literature, although Summers-Smith (1988) mentions that Jones (1912) recorded them breeding in the old nests of baya weavers Ploceus philippinus. The old egret nests at Bhindawas provided the roof and the nest shape was less domed as a result. Seven were in old, probably egret, nests and two were in the base of nests of Asian pied starlings Sturnus contra. The starlings may still have occupied one of these nests, as one bird constantly visited and sat on top of the nest, calling. It did not enter the nest, however. This may have been no more than an interest in the new tenants. Two nests were free standing (as in the Sonipat area) and one was built on top of an old (probably egret) nest. A male was observed taking dry grasses from a much reduced used nest, from which young had recently fledged, and contributing
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SIND SPARROW IN THE YAMUNA FLOOD PLAIN
them to a new free-standing nest, presumably for a second brood.
Each nest was in its own babul, 4-5 m above the ground in the canopy. The trees occupied were 10-20 m apart, so that all the calling and singing males were audible to each other. No interactions between different pairs were observed at Bhindawas during the two short visits. However, at the first nest found on May 13 near Mohamedabad, the nesting pair determinedly drove off other Sind sparrows that landed in the nest tree.
Discussion
Circumstantially, the evidence is that the Sind sparrow only colonised parts of Haryana (and Delhi) in 2001, but it has to be admitted that knowledge of the species and coverage of the area has always been extremely limited. It is feasible that colonisation has been progressing for a number of years and it may be that 2001 saw its first consolidation, thus making the species more obvious. But it is still extremely scarce and local everywhere. SCS has been very active in Haryana for many years, and it seems likely that the records from his area (and north Delhi) since January 2001 are genuinely new. In Bhindawas, given the generally inaccessible and inaudible nature of the colony (a wade through nearly 1 m of mud and water is required during the monsoon breeding season, and the birds are usually only audible from the bund at daybreak), it is possible that they have been overlooked by the infrequent birding visitors. SCS visited Bhindawas regularly from 1985-91, so any colonisation is likely to have begun after that date.
Whatever the date of the initiation, and we are certainly talking of the 1990s at the earliest. In a relatively short time, the Sind sparrow, a
hitherto largely sedentary and localized species, has crossed a major geographical divide and successfully established a breeding population. The main route into Haryana was probably the Western Yamuna Canal, which divides into the Delhi and Jawaharlal Nehru Feeder Canals at Sardhana. All records to the end of August 200 1 have been along or close to these two canals and their link canals. This may have involved crossing no more than a 100 km gap from the upper Sutlej to the Yamuna flood plain, most likely in the region of Ludhiana. Thus, the intricate system of canals, feeders and drains in the Punjab and Haryana has enabled the species to spread because of the eminently sensible practice of planting native babul trees along the bunds to stabilise the soil. Apart from the proximity of water, the major constant in the Sind sparrows’ ecological requirements appears to be the babul tree.
Fig. 2 shows the main arteries of the system and the way they connect the established and new sites of the Sind sparrow in India. The species, if it continues to prosper, is on the threshold of the whole Gangetic system. It will be interesting to see if it takes advantage of the great waterways and their tributaries; or whether climatic and other ecological limitations hinder its spread much further. We need to find out much more about the species’ diet, social structure, breeding regime and habitat requirements. But it remains a delightful and much underestimated species, well able to co-exist with the house sparrow (its erstwhile, claimed conspecific), and clearly on the move.
Acknowledgement
We are grateful to Dr. Asad Rahmani for encouraging us to write this paper and for commenting constructively on the initial draft.
42
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002
SIND SPARROW IN THE YAMUNA FLOOD PLAIN
Refer
Bapat, N.N. (1993): Sind sparrow Passer pyrrhonotus Blyth in northwest Gujarat J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc, 89: 378.
Jones, A.E. (1912): Notes on birds from Lahore. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 21: 1073-1074.
e n c e s
Ripley, S.D. (1982): A Synopsis of the Birds of India and Pakistan. Bombay Natural History Society. Pp. 538.
Summers-Smith, J. Denis (1988): The Sparrows. T + A.D. Poyses, Calton. Pp. 194-198.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002
43
EDIBLE OYSTERS OF THE GENUS CRASSOSTREA SACCO 1897, ALONG THE RATNAGIRI COAST, MAHARASHTRA, INDIA1
M.S. Sawant and A.M. Ranade2
Key words: Edible oysters, Crassostrea gryphoides , Crassostrea madrasensis ,
Crassostrea rivularis , Ratnagiri coast
The edible oysters, which provide subsistence level fishery along the Indian coastline, are represented in the Ratnagiri region, Maharashtra State, by three species, namely Crassostrea gryphoides , C. madrasensis and C. rivularis. Based on an extensive series of material, a simple key for their identification is formulated. Information is also given on major synonymy and local distribution. C. madrasensis is reported for the first time from the northwest coast of India.
Introduction
Edible oysters are one of the major seafood delicacies along the Indian coastal belt. They also form a subsistence level of fishery, almost throughout the year. Yet, surprisingly little information is available on their species composition, seasonal abundance and ecology, particularly for the Konkan coast of Maharashtra State (west coast of India). Investigation was, therefore, initiated in and around Ratnagiri town, which is one of the major molluscan fishery centres along the Konkan coast. It was revealed that the study area harbours only one oyster genus i.e. Crassostrea Sacco, which is described hereunder:
Germs Crassostrea Sacco
Diagnostic features: Shell valves rather elongate and dissimilar in shape and size; left valve, representing the lower side, attached to the substratum, right valve almost flat, covering the left from above. Hinge without teeth, and ligament partly external. Adductor scar situated dorsolaterally. Sexes separate, but occasional instances of sex reversal and hermaphroditism not uncommon. Oviparous with external fertilization.
'Accepted September, 1998
2College of Fisheries, Konkan Agricultural University, Shirgaon, Ratnagiri 415 629, Maharashtra, India.
Remarks: The known eleven species of Indian edible oysters are all egg laying forms (= oviparous) and included presently under the genus Crassostrea : Durve (1967, 1973), Jones (1968), Imai (1971), Rao (1974, 1987). Early workers (Hornell 1910, 1918; Awati and Rao 1931) had erroneously placed them under genus Ostrea , which includes only larvae- releasing (= larviparous) forms. Of the 11 species, only 3 were recorded during our investigation, and can easily be distinguished by the following key:
Key to the species of genus Crassostrea from the Ratnagiri coast
1. Shell valves more or less uniformly round; left valve rather shallow and attached to substratum with its entire outer surface. Umbonal cavity quite shallow. Adductor muscle scar (oblong) whitish. Almost entire inner surface of shell whitish .... Crassostrea rivularis (Gould 1861)
— Shell valves rather irregular in shape; left valve considerably deep, cup-like and attached to substratum by only a small portion towards hinge. Umbo cavity quite deep. Adductor muscle scar (round or kidney shaped) either deep purplish- black or distinctly creamish 2
2. Shell oblong with purplish-black coloration along the margins of the valves. Adductor muscle scar
round and distinctly purplish-black
Crassostrea madrasensis (Preston 1916)
44
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002
EDIBLE OYSTERS, CRASSOSTREA, ALONG THE RATNAGIR1 COAST
— Shell oval with almost entire inner surface creamish. Adductor muscle scar kidney shaped
and distinctly creamish
Crassostreagryphoid.es (Schlotheim 1813)
1. Crassostrea gryphoides (Schlotheim 1813) Ostracites gryphoides Schlotheim, 1813:
6 (Type locality: Bay of Bengal).
Ostrea gryphoides Vredenburg, 1904: 174; Awati & Rao, 1931: 6.
Crassostrea gryphoides Durve & Bal, 1961: 70; Durve, 1967: 173; Rao, 1974: 27; 1987: 1.
Common English Name: Indian backwater oyster (West coast oyster).
Local, Marathi Name: Kaalav Material examined: About 500 specimens, size 3.70-16.0 cm, collected from various creeks in and around Ratnagiri, namely Bhatya, Sakhartar, Miry a, Purnagad, Saithawada, Jaitapur from June 1995 to May 1996.
Remarks: Crassostrea gryphoides is essentially an euryhaline species inhabiting bays, lagoons, backwaters and creeks. In the open waters, it is found to penetrate up to a depth of
7 m. It is the most common species of oyster in the Ratnagiri region of the district, forming about 77% of the total oyster catch, with extensive beds along the creeks. The shell colour tends to vary with local ecological conditions.
2. Crassostrea madrasensis (Preston 1916) Ostrea madrasensis Preston, 1916 (Type locality: Ennur backwater, Madras) Awati and Rao, 1931: 111; Gravely, 1941: l;Paul, 1942: 1; Satyamurthi, 1956: 68.
Ostrea cucullata Homell, 1910: 25. Ostrea virginica Annandale & Kemp, 1916: 329.
Ostrea virginiana Hornell, 1922: 97. Ostrea virginiana var. madrasensis Moses, 1928: 548
Ostrea arakanensis Winckworth, 1931:
188.
Ostrea ( Crassostrea ) madrasensis Rao, 1956: 332.
Crassostrea madrasensis Rao, 1958: 55; 1974: 14; 1987: 1; Durve, 1967: 173.
Common English Name: Indian backwater oyster (East coast oyster).
Local, Marathi Name: Kaalav.
Material examined: About 100
specimens, size: 3.7-16.2 cm, collected from Bhatya, Sakhartar and Mirya creeks near Ratnagiri from June 1995 to May 1996.
Remarks: Despite being an euryhadne species like Crassostrea gryphoides , C. madrasensis exhibits greater penetration into open waters, to a depth of 17 m. So far, it was known only from east and southwest coasts of India (Alagarswami and Narasimham 1973). This is, therefore, the first record of C. madrasensis along the northwest coast of India. The species is second in abundance along the Ratnagiri waters, forming about 14% of the total oyster catch. Large to medium size beds of this species are known to occur in Bhatya, Sakhartar and Mirya creeks. Their shell coloration varies according to different localities.
3. Crassostrea rivularis (Gould 1861)
Ostrea rivularis Gould, 1861: 178 (Type locality: China seas); Cahn, 1950: 12.
Ostrea discoidea Awati & Rao, 1931 : 3.
Crassostrea discoidea Rao, 1958: 55; Alagarswami & Narasimham, 1973; 654; Rao, 1974: 36.
Crassostrea rivularis Imai, 1971: 125; Rao, 1987: 1.
Common English Name: Chinese oyster.
Local, Marathi Name: Kaalav.
Material examined: About 60 specimens, size 5.4-11.5 cm, collected from Bhatya and Sakhartar creeks near Ratnagiri from June 1995 to May 1996.
Remarks: Crassostrea rivularis appears to be the least common of ad local species, forming about 9% of the total oyster yield of the
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002
45
EDIBLE OYSTERS, CRASSOSTREA, ALONG THE RATNAGJRJ COAST
region. Its beds are located at Bhatya and Sakhartar creeks and in open waters it has restricted distribution, to a depth of 7 m only.
Conclusion: From the foregoing account, it appears that the Indian west coast backwater oyster Crassostrea gryphoides is the most common species inhabiting the Ratnagiri waters, followed by C. madrasensis and C. rivularis in order of abundance. This is also the first record of the Indian east coast backwater oyster C. madrasensis along
, Refer
Alagarswami, K. & K.A. Narasimham (1973): Clam, Cockle and Oyster resources of the Indian coast. Proc. symp. Living resources of the seas around India, 648-658.
Annandale, N. & S. Kemp (1916): Fauna of Chilka lake Mollusca, Gastropoda and Lamellibranchiata. Mem. lnd. Mus. 5: 329-366.
Awati, RR. & H.S. Rao (1931): The Indian Zoological Memoirs on Indian Animal Types. 3. Ostrea cucullata (The Bombay oyster): 1-104.
Cahn, A. C. ( 1 950): Oyster culture in Japan. Published by Gen. H.Q. Supreme Commander for the Allied Forces, Natural Resources Section Report , 134, Tokyo, pp. 80.
Durve, V.S. (1967): On the nomenclature of two Indian backwater oysters. J. Mar. biol. Ass. India. 9(1): 173- 178.
Durve, V.S. ( 1 973): Malacological differences between the oyster Crassostrea gryphoides (Schlotheim) and Crassostrea madrasensis (Preston). Indian J. Fish. 20(2): 624-625.
Durve, V.S. & D.V. Bal (1961): Studies on the chemical composition of the oyster, Crassostrea gryphoides (Schlotheim). J. Mar. biol. Ass. India 13: 70-77. Gould, A. A. (1861): Proc. Boston. Soc. nat. Hist. 8: 39, repr. in Otia Conchologia p: 178.
Gravely, F.H. (1941): Shells and other animal remains found on the Madras beach. 1 . Groups other than snails etc. (Mollusca, Gastropoda). Bull. Madras Govt. Mus. N.S. Nat. Hist., 5(1): 1-112.
Hornell, J. (1910): The practice of oyster culture at Arcachon, Madras Fish. Bull. 5: 1-90.
Hornell, J. (1918): The edible molluscs of the Madras Presidency. Madras Fish. Bull. 11: 1-51.
Hornell, J. (1922): The Common Molluscs of South India.
Madras Fish. Bull. 14:91-215.
Imaj Takeo (1971): Aquaculture in shallow seas: Progress in Shallow sea culture: 1 25- 1 26, 205-260.
the northwest coast of India.
Acknowledgements
We are grateful to Dr. RC. Raje, Associate Dean, College of Fisheries, Ratnagiri and the Konkan Krishi Vidyapeeth, Dapoli, Ratnagiri for facilities. Our special thanks to the Late Dr. D.R. Jalihal for help in taxonomic identification and valuable suggestions.
E N C E S
Jones, S. (1968): The molluscan fishery resources of India.
Proc. Symp. Mollusca (3): 906-918.
Moses, S.T. (1928): A preliminary report on the anatomy and life history of the common edible backwater oyster Ostrea madrasensis. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 32: 548-552.
Paul, M.D. ( 1 942): Studies on the growth and breeding of certain sedentary organisms in the Madras harbour. Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. Pp. 1-42.
Preston, H.B. (1916): Report on a collection ofMollusca from the Cochin backwaters. Rec. Indian Mus., 12: 27-39.
Rao, K. Satyanarayana (1974): Edible bivalves: mussels and oysters In: The Commercial Molluscs of India, R.V. Nair & K.S. Rao. (Eds.) CMFRI bulletin no. 25: 4-39.
Rao, K. Satyanarayana (1987): Taxonomy of Indian Oysters. CMFRI bulletin no. 38 Oyster culture Status and Prospects. 1-6.
Rao V irbhadra, K. ( 1 956): Seasonal changes in the adult backwater oyster Ostrea (Crassostrea) madrasenis (Preston) from Ennur near Madras. Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. 44b: 332-356.
Rao V irbhadra, K. (1958): Molluscan Fisheries. In: Fisheries of West Coast of India (Ed.: Jones, S.). Pp. 55-59.
Satyamurthi, S.T. (1956): The Mollusca ofKrusadai Island (in Gulf of Mannar) 2. Scaphopoda, Pelecypoda and Cephalopoda. Bull. Madras Govt. Mus. (New Ser.). Nat. Hist. Sect., 1(1): Pt. 7: 202.
Schlotheim (18 13): Beitr. Natur. Verstein. Geogn. Hinsicht, Taschenbuch Mineralogies 7: 52 (Reprinted in the Records of the Geological Survey of India 42: Part 1 , 1912 1-15).
Vredenburg, E.W. (1904): Recent and subrecent marine beds in Calcutta. Rec. Geol. Surv. India 31: 174-176. Winckworth, R. (1931): Mollusca from the Pulicat lake. Proc. Malacol. Soc. London 19: 188-189.
46
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002
FRESHWATER FISHES OF SOUTHERN KERALA WITH NOTES ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF ENDEMIC AND ENDANGERED SPECIES'
K. Raju Thomas* 2, M. John George3 and C. R. Biju2
Key words: Freshwater fishes, southern Kerala, distribution, endemic, endangered
Freshwater fishes were collected from rivers of southern Kerala from November 1996 to April 2000. A total of 117 species belonging to 58 genera, 27 families, and 10 orders were recorded. The most abundant order was Cypriniformes, followed by Perciformes and Siluriformes. The distribution of 36 endangered and 1 1 endemic species is also included. Most of the endangered
fish are restricted to one or two rivers.
Introduction
The Western Ghats are one of the selected biodiversity hotspots in the world. According to the distribution of hill-stream fishes, Bhimachar (1945) has divided the Western Ghats into three major regions. These geographic regions are northern division (Surat to Goa), central division (Goa to Nilgiri mountains) and southern division (south of Palghat Gap). The Western Ghats form the major watershed in Kerala and 44 rivers originate from it. Of these, 19 rivers and a portion of Bharathapuzha river flow through the southern part of Kerala. The freshwater fishes collected from these rivers and the distribution of endemic and endangered species are given in this paper.
The first monumental work on fishes of malabar was by Francis Day (1865). The next ichthyofaunal study in southern Kerala was by Pillay ( 1 929) followed by John ( 1 936). Hora and Law (1941) published a comprehensive list of freshwater fishes from Travancore. Other intensive freshwater fish fauna studies were conducted in southern Kerala by Raj (1941), Herre (1942), Silas (1950, 1951, 1954, 1958),
'Accepted August, 2001
2Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House,
S B. Singh Road, Mumbai 400 023, Maharashtra, India. Present address: Mar Thoma College, Thiruvalla689 103, Kerala, India.
’Mar Thoma College for Women, Perumbavoor,
Ernakulam 683 542, Kerala, India.
Menon (1950, 1951), Rita et al. (1978), Rema Devi and Indra (1984), Rema Devi and Menon ( 1 992), Pethiyagoda and Kottelat ( 1 994), Menon and Rema Devi (1995), Menon and Jacob (1996), Easa and Shaji (1996), Zacharias et al. (1996), Biju et al. (1999), Ajith Kumar et al. (1999) and Raju Thomas et al. (1999, 2000a, b).
Though there are a number of publications on freshwater fish fauna from southern Kerala, studies on fish assemblages have been carried out only in a few river segments. We provide an updated assessment of the conditions and status of the freshwater fishes in southern Kerala, with special reference to species regarded as endemic and endangered.
Study Area
Kerala is situated in the southwest corner of India (8° 17' 30"-12° 47 40” N and 74° 51' 57". 77° 24’ 47" E). The Western Ghats, as a natural wall on the eastern side, and the Arabian Sea on the western side, flank the State. The Western Ghats protect the State from the dry winds of the eastern plateau and provide steady rainfall during the monsoon. This range has only one major discontinuity — the Palghat Gap in Kerala, dividing the state into two parts: north and south of Palghat Gap. We selected the southern part as our study area. Natural topographic features such as mountain ridges and valleys divide southern Kerala into a number of divisions: Agasthyamalai Range, Pandalam
JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002
Al
FRESHWATER FISHES OF SOUTHERN KERALA
Hills, Cardamom Hills, The High Ranges, and the Nelliampathy and Anaimalai Hills (Nair 1991). The land resources of these areas generally fall into four well defined natural divisions: 1) Lowland (< 75 m above msl), 2) Midland (75 to 500 m above msl), 3) Highland (500 to 750 m above msl), and 4) High Ranges (> 750 m above msl).
The highest peak in the Western Ghats, the Anamudi (2,690 m above msl) is situated in the study area. Most of the reserve forests and sanctuaries of the study area are in the Highland region. Eravikulam is the only national park in this area. The study area includes the following sanctuaries: Neyyar, Chendurni, Peppara, Periyar, Idukki, Thattekkad, Chimmony, Parambikulam, and Peechi-Vazhani. In the present study, fishes were collected from 19 rivers and also from a portion of the Bharathapuzha river. Specimens were collected from all the rivers except Peppara Sanctuary area of Karamana river, Chendurni Sanctuary of Kallada river, and Periyar Sanctuary area of Periyar river.
Methods
A survey was carried out during November 1996 to April 2000 in the rivers flowing through southern Kerala. Studies were mainly done in the post-monsoon periods. However, some collections were made during pre-monsoon and monsoon periods. 1 : 50,000 topographical maps of the Survey of India were used to trace the river system and pinpoint the collection sites. Samples were collected from several approachable areas of each stream of the main river. As our study period was post-monsoon, the water was rarely turbid. Fish samples were collected by using cast net, scoop net, gill net, and a circular net with very small mesh size and sinkers on the edge. Constant efforts were made to reduce statistical bias. Samples were preserved in 10% formaline and kept in the field station
for identification and further studies. The works of Jayaram (1981, 1999), Datta Munshi and Srivastava (1988), Talwar and Jhingran (1991), and Menon (1998) were followed for the identification of fishes.
According to the IUCN criteria, the fishes of Kerala can be grouped into two categories: Threatened and Non-threatened. The category Threatened is further divided into (1) Critically Endangered (CR), (2) Endangered (EN), and (3) Vulnerable (VU). The Non-threatened category is divided into (1) Low Risk-nearly threatened (LR-nt) and (2) Low Risk- of least concern (LR- lc). These criteria are more applicable to a single river. Since we had covered 20 rivers, we adopted the IUCN criteria with some modifications. In our analysis, we classified the species based on restricted distribution of the species, area of occupancy of the species, and the number of species recorded. The criteria adopted are as follows:
Critically Endangered: (a) species with distribution restricted to a single river, (b) area of occupancy limited to a single location in that river, and (c) the number of species estimated to be less than five in the collection site.
Endangered: (a) species with distribution restricted to 1 -3 rivers, (b) area of occupancy of less than 5 collection sites in the rivers from where they are recorded, and (c) the number of species estimated to be less than 10 in the collection sites.
Vulnerable: (a) species with distribution restricted to 4-8 rivers, (b) area of occupancy of less than 10 collection sites in the rivers from where they were collected, and (c) the number of species estimated to be less than 10 in the collection sites.
Low Risk-nearly threatened: (a) species with wide distribution in 8-15 rivers, (b) area of occupancy of more than 20 collection sites in the rivers from where they were recorded, and (c) the number of species estimated to be less than 15 in the collection sites.
48
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002
FRESHWATER FISHES OF SOUTHERN KERALA
Low Risk-least concern: (a) species with wide distribution in more than 15 rivers, (b) area of occupancy of more than 20 collection sites in the rivers from where they were recorded, and (c) the number of species estimated to be more than 15 in the collection sites.
Results and Discussion
A total of 1 1 7 species of freshwater fishes, belonging to 58 genera of 27 families and 10 orders were recorded from the rivers flowing through southern Kerala (Table 1). The most abundant order was Cypriniformes, followed by Perciformes and Siluriformes. The family with the maximum number of representatives was Cyprinidae. The most abundant genus was Puntius followed by Mystus and Nemacheilus.
The list of Critically Endangered and Endangered species is given in Table 2. Under these categories, 26 species were recorded from a single river alone. All these species are considered threatened, as their distribution is restricted and there is an alarming decrease in their numbers. The following are considered as endemic species: Puntius denisonii (Day), Osteobrama bakeri Day, Garra surendranathanii Shaji et al, Osteochilus longidorsalis Pethiyagoda and Kottelat, Chela fasciata Silas, Travancoria jonesi Hora, Nemacheilus pambarensis Rema Devi and Indra, N. keralensis Rita and Nalbant, Horabagrus brachysoma (Gunther), H. nigricollaris Pethiyagoda and Kottelat, and Batasio travancoria Hora and Law. Distribution of most of these species is given in Table 2. Puntius denisonii inhabit Bharathapuzha, Chalakudy, Periyar, Pamba and Achankovil rivers, Osteobrama bakeri inhabit Bharathapuzha, Karuvannur, Chalakudy, Periyar, Muvattupuzha, Meenachil, Achankovil and Manimala rivers, while Horabagrus brachysoma is distributed in almost all the river systems of southern Kerala.
Table 1
SYSTEMATIC LIST, ABUNDANCE AND STATUS OF FRESHWATER FISHES COLLECTED FROM SOUTHERN KERALA
|
No. |
Name of Species Abundance |
Status |
|
|
1 |
Order I: Osteoglossiformes 1. Family: Notopteridae Notopterus notopterus (Pallas) |
+ |
VU |
|
2 |
Order II: Anguilliformes 2. Family: Anguillidae Anguilla bengalensis (Gray) |
+++ |
LR-nt |
|
3 |
A. bicolor bicolor McClelland |
+ |
VU |
|
*4 |
3. Family: Ophichthidae Pisodonophis boro (Ham.) |
+ |
EN |
|
5 |
Order III: Clupeiformes 4. Family: Clupeidae Dayel/a malabarica (Day) |
+++ |
LR-lc |
|
6 |
Order IV: Cypriniformes 5. Family: Cyprinidae Cat la cat la (Ham.) |
++ |
INTR |
|
7 |
Cirrhinus mrigala (Ham.) |
++ |
INTR |
|
8 |
Ctenopharyngodon idellus (Val.) |
++ |
INTR |
|
9 |
Cyprinus carpio communis L. |
+++ |
INTR |
|
10 |
Hypselobarbus curmuca (Ham.) |
++ |
VU |
|
11 |
H. kolus (Sykes) |
++ |
VU |
|
12 |
H. kurali Menon and Rema Devi |
+++ |
VU |
|
*13 |
H. thomassi (Day) |
+ |
EN |
|
14 |
Labeo calbasu (Ham.) |
+ |
VU |
|
15 |
L. rohita (Ham.) |
+++ |
INTR |
|
16 |
Osteobrama bakeri Day |
++ |
VU |
|
*17 |
O. cotio peninsularis Silas |
+ |
EN |
|
*18 |
Osteochilus longidorsalis |
+ |
EN |
|
*19 |
Pethiyagoda and Kottelat O. nashii (Day) |
+ |
EN |
|
*20 |
O. thomassi (Day) |
+ |
EN |
|
21 |
Barbodes carnaticus (Jerdon) |
++ |
VU |
|
22 |
B. sarana subnasutus (Val.) |
+++ |
LR-lc |
|
23 |
Puntius amphibius (Val.) |
++++ |
LR-lc |
|
24 |
P arulius (Jerdon) |
+++ |
VU |
|
25 |
P. chola (Ham.) |
+++ |
LR-lc |
|
26 |
P. conchonius (Ham.) |
++ |
LR-nt |
|
27 |
P. denisonii (Day) |
4- |
VU |
|
28 |
P. dorsalis (Jerdon) |
++ |
VU |
|
29 |
P. filamentosus (Val.) |
++++ |
LR-lc |
|
30 |
P jerdoni (Day) |
++ |
VU |
|
31 |
P. melanampyx (Day) |
+++ |
LR-lc |
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49
FRESHWATER FISHES OF SOUTHERN KERALA
Table 1 (contd.)
SYSTEMATIC LIST, ABUNDANCE AND STATUS OF FRESHWATER FISHES COLLECTED
FROM SOUTHERN KERALA
|
No. |
N ame of Species Abundance |
Status |
No. |
Name of Species Abundance |
Status |
||
|
*32 |
P. melanostigma (Day) |
+ |
EN |
Order V: Siluriformes |
|||
|
*33 |
P. ophicephalus Raj |
4- |
CR |
8. Family: Bagridae |
|||
|
34 |
P. parrah Day |
++ |
LR-nt |
73 |
Horabagrus brachysoma |
||
|
35 |
P. sophore (Ham.) |
++ |
LR-nt |
(Gunther) |
++ |
VU |
|
|
36 |
P. ticto (Ham.) |
++++ |
LR-lc |
*74 |
H. nigricollaris |
||
|
37 |
P. vittatus Day |
++++ |
LR-lc |
Pethiyagoda and Kottelat |
+ |
CR |
|
|
38 |
Tor khudree (Sykes) |
++ |
VU |
*75 |
Batasio travancoria |
||
|
*39 |
Chela fas data Silas |
+ |
EN |
Hora and Law |
++ |
EN |
|
|
40 |
Salmostoma ac inaces (Val.) |
++ |
VU |
76 |
Mystus armatus Day |
+++ |
LR-nt |
|
41 |
S. boopis (Day) |
+++ |
LR-nt |
*77 |
M. bleekeri (Day) |
+ |
EN |
|
*42 |
S. clupeiodes Bloch |
+ |
EN |
78 |
M. cavasius (Ham.) |
++ |
LR-nt |
|
43 |
Amblypharyngodon melettinus |
79 |
M. gulio (Ham.) |
+++ |
LR-lc |
||
|
(Val.) |
++++ |
LR-lc |
80 |
M. malabaricus (Jerdon) |
++ |
VU |
|
|
44 |
Barilius bakeri Day |
+++ |
LR-nt |
*81 |
M. montanus (Jerdon) |
+ |
EN |
|
45 |
B. bendelisis (Ham.) |
++ |
VU |
82 |
M. oculatus (Val.) |
++++ |
LR-lc |
|
*46 |
B. canarensis (Jerdon) |
+ |
EN |
*83 |
M. punctatus (Jerdon) |
+ |
EN |
|
47 |
B. gatensis (Val.) |
+++ |
LR-nt |
*84 |
M. vittatus (Bloch) |
+ |
EN |
|
48 |
Danio aequipinnatus |
9. Family: Claridae |
|||||
|
(McClelland) |
++++ |
LR-lc |
85 |
Clarias dussumieri (Val.) |
++ |
VU |
|
|
49 |
D. malabaricus (Jerdon) |
++++ |
LR-lc |
10. Family: Claridae |
|||
|
50 |
Parluciosoma daniconius (Ham.) |
++++ |
LR-lc |
86 |
Heteropneustes fossilis (Bloch) |
++ |
VU |
|
51 |
Esomus danricus (Ham.) |
++ |
VU |
11. Family: Siluridae |
|||
|
*52 |
E. thermoicos (Val.) |
+ |
EN |
87 |
Ompok bimaculatus (Bloch) |
+++ |
LR-nt |
|
*53 |
Garra mcclellandi (Jerdon) |
++ |
EN |
*88 |
O. malabaricus (Val.) |
++ |
EN |
|
*54 |
G. menoni Rema Devi and Indra |
++ |
EN |
89 |
Wallago attu (Schneider) |
+++ |
LR-nt |
|
55 |
G. mullya (Sykes) |
++++ |
LR-lc |
12. Family: Schilbeidae |
|||
|
*56 |
G. hughi Silas |
+ |
EN |
*90 |
Pseudeutropius mitchelli |
||
|
57 |
G. gotyla stenorhynchus (Jerdon) |
++ |
VU |
Gunther |
+ |
EN |
|
|
*58 |
G. surendranathanii Shaji etal. |
++ |
EN |
13. Family: Sisoridae |
|||
|
*59 Horalabiosa joshuai Silas |
+ |
CR |
*91 |
Glyptothorax annandalei |
+ |
EN |
|
|
6. Family: Balitoridae |
Hora |
||||||
|
60 |
Bhavania australis (Jerdon) |
++ |
VU |
92 |
G. madraspatanus (Day) |
++ |
VU |
|
*61 |
Balitora mysorensis Hora |
+ |
CR |
*93 |
G. lonah (Sykes) |
+ |
EN |
|
*62 |
Travancoria jonesi Hora |
+ |
EN |
Order V 1 : Salmoniformes |
|||
|
63 |
Nemacheilus denisoni denisoni |
14. Family: Salmonidae |
|||||
|
Day |
++ |
VU |
94 |
Salmo gairdnerii irredius |
|||
|
*64 |
N. pambarensis |
Richardson |
+ |
INTR |
|||
|
Rema Devi and Indra |
+ |
EN |
Order VII: Cyprinodonti formes |
||||
|
*65 |
N. evezardi Day |
+ |
EN |
15. Family: Belonidae |
|||
|
66 |
N. guentheri Day |
+++ |
LR-nt |
95 |
Xenentodon cancila (Ham.) |
++++ |
LR-lc |
|
*67 |
N. keralensis (Rita et al.) |
++ |
EN |
16. Family: Aplocheilidae |
|||
|
*68 |
N. monilis Hora |
+ |
CR |
96 |
Aplocheilus lineatus (Val.) |
++++ |
LR-lc |
|
*69 |
N. semiarmatus Day |
++ |
EN |
17. Family: Poecilidae |
|||
|
70 |
N. triangularis Day |
+++ |
LR-lc |
97 |
Lebistes reticulata Peters |
++ |
INTR |
|
7. Family: Cobitidae |
Order VIII: Syngnathiformes |
||||||
|
*71 |
Pangio goaensis (Tilak) |
+ |
EN |
18. Family: Syngnathidae |
|||
|
72 |
Lepidocephalus thermal is (Val.) |
++-H- |
LR-lc |
98 |
Microphis cuncalus (Ham.) |
+++ |
LR-lc |
50
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002
FRESHWATER FISHES OF SOUTHERN KERALA
Table 1 (contd.)
SYSTEMATIC LIST, ABUNDANCE AND STATUS OF FRESHWATER FISHES COLLECTED
FROM SOUTHERN KERALA
|
No. |
Name of Species |
Abundance |
Status |
No. |
Name of Species Abundance |
Status |
|
|
Order IX: Perci formes |
23. Family: Anabantidae |
||||||
|
19. Family: Ambassidae |
109 |
Anabas testudineus (Bloch) |
-4-++ |
LR-lc |
|||
|
99 |
Chanda nama (Ham.) |
LR-nt |
24. Family: Belontidae |
||||
|
100 |
Parambassis dayi |
110 |
Macropodus cupanus (Val.) |
+++ |
LR-lc |
||
|
(Bleeker) |
++++ |
LR-lc |
25. Family: Channidae |
||||
|
101 |
P. thomassi (Day) |
++ |
LR-nt |
111 |
Channa ma nil ins (Ham.) |
+++ |
VU |
|
20. Family: Nandidae |
112 |
C. orienta/is |
|||||
|
102 |
Nandus nandus (Ham.) |
+++ |
LR-lc |
Bloch and Schneider |
++ |
VU |
|
|
103 |
Pristolepis marginata |
113 |
C. punctatus (Bloch) |
++ |
VU |
||
|
Jerdon |
++ |
VU |
114 |
C. striatus (Bloch) |
+++ |
VU |
|
|
2 1 . Family: Cichlidae |
26. Family: Mastacembelidae |
||||||
|
104 |
Etroplus maculatus (Bloch) |
++++ |
LR-lc |
115 |
Mastacembelus armatus |
||
|
105 |
E. snratensis (Bloch) |
+++ |
LR-lc |
(Lacepede) |
+++ |
LR-nt |
|
|
106 |
Oreochromis mossambica |
116 |
Macrognathus guentheri (Day) |
+++ |
LR-nt |
||
|
(Peters) |
++++ |
INTR |
Order X: Tetraodonti formes |
||||
|
22. Family: Gobiidae |
27. Family: Tetraodonti dae |
||||||
|
107 |
Glossogobius giuris (Ham.) |
++++ |
LR-lc |
117 |
Tetraodon travancoricus |
||
|
*108 |
Sicyopterus griseus (Day) |
+ |
EN |
Hora and Nair |
+++ |
VU |
CR - Critically Endangered; EN - Endangered; VU - Vulnerable; LR-nt - Low Risk-nearly threatened; LR-lc - Low Risk-least concern; INTR - Introduced; + = Very rare; ++ = Rare; +++ = Common;
++++ = Very common; * = Critically endangered / Endangered species
Table 2
LIST OF CRITICALLY ENDANGERED AND ENDANGERED FISHES AND THEIR DISTRIBUTION IN
SOUTHERN KERALA
|
No.NameofSpecies |
Distribution |
No. Name of Species |
Distribution |
|
1 Pisodonophis boro (Ham. ) |
Periyar and Achankovil |
1 3 Garra mcclellandi (Jerdon) |
Chalakudy, |
|
rivers |
Bharathapuzha and |
||
|
2 Hypselobarbus thomassi |
Periyar rivers |
||
|
(Day) |
Periyar river |
14 G. menoni Rema Devi & |
Pambar river |
|
3 Osteobrama cotio |
Indra |
||
|
peninsularis Silas |
Periyar river |
15 G. hughi Silas |
Pambar river |
|
4 Osteochilus longidorsalis |
Chalakudy river |
1 6 G. surendranathanii |
Chalakudy, Periyar and |
|
Pethiyagoda and Kottelat |
Shaji etal. |
Pamba rivers |
|
|
5 O. nashii (Day) |
Periyar river |
17 Horalabiosa joshuai Silas |
Pambar river |
|
6 O. thomasii (Day) |
Periyar river |
1 8 Balitora mysorensis Hora |
Bharathapuzha river |
|
7 Puntius melanostigma |
Achankovil river |
||
|
(Day) |
1 9 Travancoria jonesi Hora |
Chalakudy and Periyar |
|
|
8 P. ophicephalus Raj |
Periyar river |
rivers |
|
|
9 Chela fasciata Silas |
Bharathapuzha river |
20 Nemacheilus pambarensis |
|
|
Rema Devi and Indra |
Pambar river |
||
|
1 0 Salmostoma clupeoides |
Chalakudy and Periyar |
2 1 N. evezardi (Day) |
Pambar river |
|
(Bloch) |
rivers |
22 N. keralensis Rita et al. |
Periyar and |
|
1 1 Barilius canarensis (Jerdon) |
Bharathapuzha and |
Muvattupuzha |
|
|
Manimala rivers |
rivers |
||
|
12 Esomus thermoicos (Val.) |
Bharathapuzha river |
23 N. monilis Hora |
Pambar river |
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 99(1), APR. 2002
51
FRESHWATER FISHES OF SOUTHERN KERALA
Table 2 (contd.)
LIST OF CRITICALLY ENDANGERED AND
ENDANGERED FISHES AND THEIR DISTRIBUTION IN SOUTHERN KERALA
|
No. |
Name of Species |
Distribution |
|
24 |
N. semiarmatus (Day) |
Pambar river |
|
25 |
Pangio goaensis (Tilak) |
Manimala river |
|
26 |
Horabagrus nigricollaris Pethiyagoda and Kottelat |
Chalakudy river |
|
27 |
Batasio travancoria |
Pamba, Manimala, and |
|
Hora and Law |
Periyar rivers |
|
|
28 |
Mystus bleekeri (Day) |
Neyyar river |
|
29 |
M. montanus (Jerdon) |
Periyar river |
|
30 |
M. punctatus (Jerdon) |
Karuvannur river |
|
31 |
M. vittatus (Bloch) |
Periyar river |
|
32 |
Ompok malabaricus (Val.) |
Chalakudy and Karuvannur rivers |
|
33 |
Pseudeutropius mitchelli Gunther |
Periyar river |
|
34 |
Glypotothorax annandalei |
|
|
(Hora) |
Muvattupuzha river |
|
|
35 |
G. lonah (Sykes) |
Chalakudy river |
|
36 |
Sicyopterus griseus (Day) |
Chalakudy and Periyar rivers |
Refer
Ajithkumar, C.R., K. Rema Devi, K. Raju Thomas & C.R. Biju ( 1 999): Fish fauna, abundance and distribution in Chalakudy river, Kerala. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 96(2): 244-254.
Bhimachar, B.S. (1945): Zoogeographical divisions of the Western Ghats, as evidenced by the distribution of the hillstream fishes. Curr. Sci. I: 12-16.
Biju, C.R., K. Raju Thomas & C.R. Ajithkumar (1999): Fishes of Parainbikulam Wildlife Sanctuary, Palakkad District, Kerala. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 96(1): 82-87.
Datta Munshi, J.S. & M.R Srivastava (1988): Natural History of Fish and Systematics of Freshwater Fishes of India. Narendra Publishing House, New Delhi.
Day, F. (1865): The fishes of Malabar. Bernard Quaritch, London. Repr. Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehra Dun.
Easa, P.S & C.P. Shaji. (1996): Freshwater fishes